Ralfvia treechat·2d
❤️ 1 Likes · ⚡ 0 Tips
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⬇️
Ralfvia treechat·2d
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Signed by14aqJ2hMtENYJVCJaekcrqi12fiZJzoWGKAIP!

Replies (1)

Ralfvia treechat·2d
Replying to #f3d942a0
❤️ 0 Likes · ⚡ 0 Tips
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  "map_content": "Title: Truth\n\nURL Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth\n\nPublished Time: 2001-02-02T03:56:44Z\n\nMarkdown Content:\n# Truth - Wikipedia\n[Jump to content](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#bodyContent)\n\n- [x] Main menu \n\nMain menu\n\nmove to sidebar hide\n\n Navigation \n\n*   [Main page](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Main_Page \"Visit the main page [z]\")\n*   [Contents](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents \"Guides to browsing Wikipedia\")\n*   [Current events](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Current_events \"Articles related to current events\")\n*   [Random article](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:Random \"Visit a randomly selected article [x]\")\n*   [About Wikipedia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:About \"Learn about Wikipedia and how it works\")\n*   [Contact us](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us \"How to contact Wikipedia\")\n\n Contribute \n\n*   [Help](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Contents \"Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia\")\n*   [Learn to edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Introduction \"Learn how to edit Wikipedia\")\n*   [Community portal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Community_portal \"The hub for editors\")\n*   [Recent changes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:RecentChanges \"A list of recent changes to Wikipedia [r]\")\n*   [Upload file](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:File_upload_wizard \"Add images or other media for use on Wikipedia\")\n*   [Special pages](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:SpecialPages \"A list of all special pages [q]\")\n\n[![Image 1](https://en.wikipedia.org/static/images/icons/enwiki-25.svg)![Image 2: Wikipedia](https://en.wikipedia.org/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en-25.svg)![Image 3: The Free Encyclopedia](https://en.wikipedia.org/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-tagline-en-25.svg)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Main_Page)\n\n[Search](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:Search \"Search Wikipedia [f]\")\n\nSearch\n\n- [x] Appearance \n\n*   [Donate](https://donate.wikimedia.org/?wmf_source=donate&wmf_medium=sidebar&wmf_campaign=en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en)\n*   [Create account](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Truth \"You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory\")\n*   [Log in](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Truth \"You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]\")\n\n- [x] Personal tools \n\n*   [Donate](https://donate.wikimedia.org/?wmf_source=donate&wmf_medium=sidebar&wmf_campaign=en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en)\n*   [Create account](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Truth \"You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory\")\n*   [Log in](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Truth \"You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]\")\n\n## Contents\n\nmove to sidebar hide\n\n*   [(Top)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#)\n*   [1 Definition](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#Definition)\n\n*   [2 Basic concepts](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#Basic_concepts)Toggle Basic concepts subsection\n    *   [2.1 Truthbearers](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#Truthbearers)\n\n    *   [2.2 Truthmakers and truth conditions](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#Truthmakers_and_truth_conditions)\n\n    *   [2.3 Others](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#Others)\n\n*   [3 Theories](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#Theories)Toggle Theories subsection\n    *   [3.1 Correspondence](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#Correspondence)\n\n    *   [3.2 Coherence](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#Coherence)\n\n    *   [3.3 Pragmatic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#Pragmatic)\n\n    *   [3.4 Semantic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#Semantic)\n\n    *   [3.5 Deflationary](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#Deflationary)\n\n    *   [3.6 Others](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#Others_2)\n\n*   [4 Types](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#Types)\n\n*   [5 In various fields](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#In_various_fields)Toggle In various fields subsection\n    *   [5.1 Science and philosophy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#Science_and_philosophy)\n\n    *   [5.2 Religion and art](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#Religion_and_art)\n\n    *   [5.3 Others](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#Others_3)\n\n*   [6 History](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#History)Toggle History subsection\n    *   [6.1 Ancient and medieval](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#Ancient_and_medieval)\n\n    *   [6.2 Modern and contemporary](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#Modern_and_contemporary)\n\n*   [7 See also](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#See_also)\n\n*   [8 References](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#References)Toggle References subsection\n    *   [8.1 Notes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#Notes)\n\n    *   [8.2 Citations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#Citations)\n\n    *   [8.3 Sources](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#Sources)\n\n*   [9 External links](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#External_links)\n\n- [x] Toggle the table of contents \n\n# Truth\n\n- [x] 142 languages \n\n*   [Afrikaans](https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waarheid \"Waarheid \u2013 Afrikaans\")\n*   [Alemannisch](https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahrheit \"Wahrheit \u2013 Alemannic\")\n*   [Aragon\u00e9s](https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verdat \"Verdat \u2013 Aragonese\")\n*   [\u0905\u0902\u0917\u093f\u0915\u093e](https://anp.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF \"\u0938\u0924\u094d\u092f \u2013 Angika\")\n*   [\u0627\u0644\u0639\u0631\u0628\u064a\u0629](https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AD%D9%82%D9%8A%D9%82%D8%A9 \"\u062d\u0642\u064a\u0642\u0629 \u2013 Arabic\")\n*   [\u0645\u0635\u0631\u0649](https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AD%D9%82%D9%8A%D9%82%D9%87 \"\u062d\u0642\u064a\u0642\u0647 \u2013 Egyptian Arabic\")\n*   [\u0985\u09b8\u09ae\u09c0\u09af\u09bc\u09be](https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF \"\u09b8\u09a4\u09cd\u09af \u2013 Assamese\")\n*   [Asturianu](https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verd%C3%A1 \"Verd\u00e1 \u2013 Asturian\")\n*   [\u0905\u0935\u0927\u0940](https://awa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%9A%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%88 \"\u0938\u091a\u094d\u091a\u093e\u0908 \u2013 Awadhi\")\n*   [Az\u0259rbaycanca](https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C9%99qiq%C9%99t \"H\u0259qiq\u0259t \u2013 Azerbaijani\")\n*   [\u062a\u06c6\u0631\u06a9\u062c\u0647](https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AD%D9%82%DB%8C%D9%82%D8%AA \"\u062d\u0642\u06cc\u0642\u062a \u2013 South Azerbaijani\")\n*   [\u0411\u0430\u0448\u04a1\u043e\u0440\u0442\u0441\u0430](https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D3%99%D2%A1%D0%B8%D2%A1%D3%99%D1%82 \"\u0425\u04d9\u04a1\u0438\u04a1\u04d9\u0442 \u2013 Bashkir\")\n*   [Boarisch](https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woarheit \"Woarheit \u2013 Bavarian\")\n*   [\u017demait\u0117\u0161ka](https://bat-smg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teis%C4%ABb%C4%97 \"Teis\u012bb\u0117 \u2013 Samogitian\")\n*   [Bikol Central](https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katotoohan \"Katotoohan \u2013 Central Bikol\")\n*   [\u0411\u0435\u043b\u0430\u0440\u0443\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f (\u0442\u0430\u0440\u0430\u0448\u043a\u0435\u0432\u0456\u0446\u0430)](https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%86%D1%81%D1%8C%D1%86%D1%96%D0%BD%D0%B0 \"\u0406\u0441\u044c\u0446\u0456\u043d\u0430 \u2013 Belarusian (Tara\u0161kievica orthography)\")\n*   [\u0411\u0435\u043b\u0430\u0440\u0443\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f](https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%86%D1%81%D1%86%D1%96%D0%BD%D0%B0 \"\u0406\u0441\u0446\u0456\u043d\u0430 \u2013 Belarusian\")\n*   [\u0411\u044a\u043b\u0433\u0430\u0440\u0441\u043a\u0438](https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0 \"\u0418\u0441\u0442\u0438\u043d\u0430 \u2013 Bulgarian\")\n*   [\u09ac\u09be\u0982\u09b2\u09be](https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF \"\u09b8\u09a4\u09cd\u09af \u2013 Bangla\")\n*   [Brezhoneg](https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gwirionez \"Gwirionez \u2013 Breton\")\n*   [Bosanski](https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Istina \"Istina \u2013 Bosnian\")\n*   [\u0411\u0443\u0440\u044f\u0430\u0434](https://bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D2%AE%D0%BD%D1%8D%D0%BD \"\u04ae\u043d\u044d\u043d \u2013 Russia Buriat\")\n*   [Catal\u00e0](https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veritat \"Veritat \u2013 Catalan\")\n*   [\u041d\u043e\u0445\u0447\u0438\u0439\u043d](https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%8A%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B3 \"\u0411\u0430\u043a\u044a\u0434\u0435\u0440\u0433 \u2013 Chechen\")\n*   [\u06a9\u0648\u0631\u062f\u06cc](https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%95%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AA%DB%8C \"\u0695\u0627\u0633\u062a\u06cc \u2013 Central Kurdish\")\n*   [\u010ce\u0161tina](https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pravda \"Pravda \u2013 Czech\")\n*   [\u0427\u04d1\u0432\u0430\u0448\u043b\u0430](https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A7%C4%83%D0%BD%D0%BB%C4%83%D1%85 \"\u0427\u0103\u043d\u043b\u0103\u0445 \u2013 Chuvash\")\n*   [Cymraeg](https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gwirionedd \"Gwirionedd \u2013 Welsh\")\n*   [Dansk](https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sandhed \"Sandhed \u2013 Danish\")\n*   [Deutsch](https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahrheit \"Wahrheit \u2013 German\")\n*   [\u0395\u03bb\u03bb\u03b7\u03bd\u03b9\u03ba\u03ac](https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%91%CE%BB%CE%AE%CE%B8%CE%B5%CE%B9%CE%B1 \"\u0391\u03bb\u03ae\u03b8\u03b5\u03b9\u03b1 \u2013 Greek\")\n*   [Esperanto](https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vero \"Vero \u2013 Esperanto\")\n*   [Espa\u00f1ol](https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verdad \"Verdad \u2013 Spanish\")\n*   [Eesti](https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%B5de \"T\u00f5de \u2013 Estonian\")\n*   [Euskara](https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egia \"Egia \u2013 Basque\")\n*   [\u0641\u0627\u0631\u0633\u06cc](https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AD%D9%82%DB%8C%D9%82%D8%AA_(%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%81%D9%87) \"\u062d\u0642\u06cc\u0642\u062a (\u0641\u0644\u0633\u0641\u0647) \u2013 Persian\")\n*   [Suomi](https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Totuus \"Totuus \u2013 Finnish\")\n*   [Na Vosa Vakaviti](https://fj.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dina \"Dina \u2013 Fijian\")\n*   [Fran\u00e7ais](https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%A9rit%C3%A9 \"V\u00e9rit\u00e9 \u2013 French\")\n*   [Nordfriisk](https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woorhaid \"Woorhaid \u2013 Northern Frisian\")\n*   [Frysk](https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wierheid \"Wierheid \u2013 Western Frisian\")\n*   [Gaeilge](https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%ADrinne \"F\u00edrinne \u2013 Irish\")\n*   [\u8d1b\u8a9e](https://gan.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%9C%9F%E7%90%86 \"\u771f\u7406 \u2013 Gan\")\n*   [Kriy\u00f2l gwiyannen](https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%A9rit%C3%A9 \"V\u00e9rit\u00e9 \u2013 Guianan Creole\")\n*   [Galego](https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verdade \"Verdade \u2013 Galician\")\n*   [Ava\u00f1e'\u1ebd](https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/A%C3%B1ete \"A\u00f1ete \u2013 Guarani\")\n*   [\u0a97\u0ac1\u0a9c\u0ab0\u0abe\u0aa4\u0ac0](https://gu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AA%B8%E0%AA%A4%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%AF \"\u0ab8\u0aa4\u0acd\u0aaf \u2013 Gujarati\")\n*   [Gungbe](https://guw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nugbo \"Nugbo \u2013 Gun\")\n*   [Hausa](https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaskiya \"Gaskiya \u2013 Hausa\")\n*   [\u05e2\u05d1\u05e8\u05d9\u05ea](https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%9E%D7%AA \"\u05d0\u05de\u05ea \u2013 Hebrew\")\n*   [Fiji Hindi](https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sachchaai \"Sachchaai \u2013 Fiji Hindi\")\n*   [Hrvatski](https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Istina \"Istina \u2013 Croatian\")\n*   [Krey\u00f2l ayisyen](https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verite \"Verite \u2013 Haitian Creole\")\n*   [Magyar](https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Igazs%C3%A1g_(filoz%C3%B3fia) \"Igazs\u00e1g (filoz\u00f3fia) \u2013 Hungarian\")\n*   [\u0540\u0561\u0575\u0565\u0580\u0565\u0576](https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%83%D5%B7%D5%B4%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%BF%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6 \"\u0543\u0577\u0574\u0561\u0580\u057f\u0578\u0582\u0569\u0575\u0578\u0582\u0576 \u2013 Armenian\")\n*   [\u0531\u0580\u0565\u0582\u0574\u057f\u0561\u0570\u0561\u0575\u0565\u0580\u0567\u0576](https://hyw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%83%D5%B7%D5%B4%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%BF%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%AB%D6%82%D5%B6 \"\u0543\u0577\u0574\u0561\u0580\u057f\u0578\u0582\u0569\u056b\u0582\u0576 \u2013 Western Armenian\")\n*   [Interlingua](https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veritate \"Veritate \u2013 Interlingua\")\n*   [Bahasa Indonesia](https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kebenaran \"Kebenaran \u2013 Indonesian\")\n*   [Ilokano](https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinaagpayso \"Kinaagpayso \u2013 Iloko\")\n*   [Ido](https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verajo \"Verajo \u2013 Ido\")\n*   [\u00cdslenska](https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sannleikur \"Sannleikur \u2013 Icelandic\")\n*   [Italiano](https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verit%C3%A0 \"Verit\u00e0 \u2013 Italian\")\n*   [\u65e5\u672c\u8a9e](https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%9C%9F%E7%90%86 \"\u771f\u7406 \u2013 Japanese\")\n*   [Patois](https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chuut \"Chuut \u2013 Jamaican Creole English\")\n*   [\u10e5\u10d0\u10e0\u10d7\u10e3\u10da\u10d8](https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%AD%E1%83%94%E1%83%A8%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%A2%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%90 \"\u10ed\u10d4\u10e8\u10db\u10d0\u10e0\u10d8\u10e2\u10d4\u10d1\u10d0 \u2013 Georgian\")\n*   [Kab\u0269y\u025b](https://kbp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toovenum_(v%C3%A9rit%C3%A9) \"Toovenum (v\u00e9rit\u00e9) \u2013 Kabiye\")\n*   [\u049a\u0430\u0437\u0430\u049b\u0448\u0430](https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D2%9B%D0%B8%D2%9B%D0%B0%D1%82 \"\u0410\u049b\u0438\u049b\u0430\u0442 \u2013 Kazakh\")\n*   [\ud55c\uad6d\uc5b4](https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A7%84%EB%A6%AC \"\uc9c4\ub9ac \u2013 Korean\")\n*   [Kurd\u00ee](https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rast%C3%AE \"Rast\u00ee \u2013 Kurdish\")\n*   [\u041a\u044b\u0440\u0433\u044b\u0437\u0447\u0430](https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A7%D1%8B%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%8B%D0%BA \"\u0427\u044b\u043d\u0434\u044b\u043a \u2013 Kyrgyz\")\n*   [Latina](https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veritas \"Veritas \u2013 Latin\")\n*   [Lingua Franca Nova](https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veria \"Veria \u2013 Lingua Franca Nova\")\n*   [Limburgs](https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waorheid \"Waorheid \u2013 Limburgish\")\n*   [Ligure](https://lij.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veit%C3%A6 \"Veit\u00e6 \u2013 Ligurian\")\n*   [Ladin](https://lld.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urit%C3%A0 \"Urit\u00e0 \u2013 Ladin\")\n*   [Lombard](https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veritaa \"Veritaa \u2013 Lombard\")\n*   [Lietuvi\u0173](https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiesa \"Tiesa \u2013 Lithuanian\")\n*   [Latvie\u0161u](https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paties%C4%ABba \"Paties\u012bba \u2013 Latvian\")\n*   [Madhur\u00e2](https://mad.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kabhen%E1%B8%8Derr%C3%A2n \"Kabhen\u1e0derr\u00e2n \u2013 Madurese\")\n*   [\u092e\u0948\u0925\u093f\u0932\u0940](https://mai.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%81%E0%A4%9A \"\u0938\u093e\u0901\u091a \u2013 Maithili\")\n*   [Malagasy](https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fahamarinana \"Fahamarinana \u2013 Malagasy\")\n*   [\u041c\u0430\u043a\u0435\u0434\u043e\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438](https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0 \"\u0412\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0438\u043d\u0430 \u2013 Macedonian\")\n*   [\u0d2e\u0d32\u0d2f\u0d3e\u0d33\u0d02](https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B8%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%82 \"\u0d38\u0d24\u0d4d\u0d2f\u0d02 \u2013 Malayalam\")\n*   [\u041c\u043e\u043d\u0433\u043e\u043b](https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D2%AE%D0%BD%D1%8D%D0%BD \"\u04ae\u043d\u044d\u043d \u2013 Mongolian\")\n*   [\u092e\u0930\u093e\u0920\u0940](https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF \"\u0938\u0924\u094d\u092f \u2013 Marathi\")\n*   [Bahasa Melayu](https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kebenaran \"Kebenaran \u2013 Malay\")\n*   [Mirand\u00e9s](https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berdade \"Berdade \u2013 Mirandese\")\n*   [\u1019\u103c\u1014\u103a\u1019\u102c\u1018\u102c\u101e\u102c](https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%A1%E1%80%99%E1%80%BE%E1%80%94%E1%80%BA%E1%80%90%E1%80%9B%E1%80%AC%E1%80%B8 \"\u1021\u1019\u103e\u1014\u103a\u1010\u101b\u102c\u1038 \u2013 Burmese\")\n*   [Plattd\u00fc\u00fctsch](https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waarheid \"Waarheid \u2013 Low German\")\n*   [\u0928\u0947\u092a\u093e\u0932\u0940](https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF \"\u0938\u0924\u094d\u092f \u2013 Nepali\")\n*   [\u0928\u0947\u092a\u093e\u0932 \u092d\u093e\u0937\u093e](https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF \"\u0938\u0924\u094d\u092f \u2013 Newari\")\n*   [Nederlands](https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waarheid \"Waarheid \u2013 Dutch\")\n*   [Norsk nynorsk](https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanning \"Sanning \u2013 Norwegian Nynorsk\")\n*   [Norsk bokm\u00e5l](https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sannhet \"Sannhet \u2013 Norwegian Bokm\u00e5l\")\n*   [Novial](https://nov.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veritate \"Veritate \u2013 Novial\")\n*   [Nouormand](https://nrm.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%A9rita%C3%A9 \"V\u00e9rita\u00e9 \u2013 Norman\")\n*   [Occitan](https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertat \"Vertat \u2013 Occitan\")\n*   [\u0a2a\u0a70\u0a1c\u0a3e\u0a2c\u0a40](https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%B8%E0%A9%B1%E0%A8%9A \"\u0a38\u0a71\u0a1a \u2013 Punjabi\")\n*   [P\u00e4lzisch](https://pfl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahrheit \"Wahrheit \u2013 Palatine German\")\n*   [Polski](https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prawda \"Prawda \u2013 Polish\")\n*   [Piemont\u00e8is](https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vrit%C3%A0 \"Vrit\u00e0 \u2013 Piedmontese\")\n*   [\u067e\u0646\u062c\u0627\u0628\u06cc](https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%DA%86 \"\u0633\u0686 \u2013 Western Punjabi\")\n*   [\u067e\u069a\u062a\u0648](https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AD%D9%82%DB%8C%D9%82%D8%AA \"\u062d\u0642\u06cc\u0642\u062a \u2013 Pashto\")\n*   [Portugu\u00eas](https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verdade \"Verdade \u2013 Portuguese\")\n*   [Runa Simi](https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chiqap \"Chiqap \u2013 Quechua\")\n*   [Rom\u00e2n\u0103](https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adev%C4%83r \"Adev\u0103r \u2013 Romanian\")\n*   [\u0420\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439](https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0 \"\u0418\u0441\u0442\u0438\u043d\u0430 \u2013 Russian\")\n*   [\u0420\u0443\u0441\u0438\u043d\u044c\u0441\u043a\u044b\u0439](https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B4%D0%B0 \"\u041f\u0440\u0430\u0432\u0434\u0430 \u2013 Rusyn\")\n*   [\u0938\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0915\u0943\u0924\u092e\u094d](https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D \"\u0938\u0924\u094d\u092f\u092e\u094d \u2013 Sanskrit\")\n*   [\u0421\u0430\u0445\u0430 \u0442\u044b\u043b\u0430](https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%8B%D1%80%D0%B4%D1%8C%D1%8B%D0%BA \"\u041a\u044b\u0440\u0434\u044c\u044b\u043a \u2013 Yakut\")\n*   [\u1c65\u1c5f\u1c71\u1c5b\u1c5f\u1c72\u1c64](https://sat.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%B1%A5%E1%B1%9A%E1%B1%9B \"\u1c65\u1c5a\u1c5b \u2013 Santali\")\n*   [Scots](https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truith \"Truith \u2013 Scots\")\n*   [\u0633\u0646\u068c\u064a](https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%DA%86 \"\u0633\u0686 \u2013 Sindhi\")\n*   [Srpskohrvatski / \u0441\u0440\u043f\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0445\u0440\u0432\u0430\u0442\u0441\u043a\u0438](https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Istina \"Istina \u2013 Serbo-Croatian\")\n*   [Simple English](https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth \"Truth \u2013 Simple English\")\n*   [Sloven\u010dina](https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pravda_(filozofia) \"Pravda (filozofia) \u2013 Slovak\")\n*   [Sloven\u0161\u010dina](https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resnica \"Resnica \u2013 Slovenian\")\n*   [ChiShona](https://sn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chokwadi \"Chokwadi \u2013 Shona\")\n*   [Soomaaliga](https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Run \"Run \u2013 Somali\")\n*   [Shqip](https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/E_v%C3%ABrteta \"E v\u00ebrteta \u2013 Albanian\")\n*   [\u0421\u0440\u043f\u0441\u043a\u0438 / srpski](https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0 \"\u0418\u0441\u0442\u0438\u043d\u0430 \u2013 Serbian\")\n*   [Svenska](https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanning \"Sanning \u2013 Swedish\")\n*   [Kiswahili](https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ukweli \"Ukweli \u2013 Swahili\")\n*   [\u0ba4\u0bae\u0bbf\u0bb4\u0bcd](https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%89%E0%AE%A3%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%88 \"\u0b89\u0ba3\u0bcd\u0bae\u0bc8 \u2013 Tamil\")\n*   [\u0c24\u0c46\u0c32\u0c41\u0c17\u0c41](https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%A8%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%9C%E0%B0%82 \"\u0c28\u0c3f\u0c1c\u0c02 \u2013 Telugu\")\n*   [\u0e44\u0e17\u0e22](https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%88%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%87 \"\u0e04\u0e27\u0e32\u0e21\u0e08\u0e23\u0e34\u0e07 \u2013 Thai\")\n*   [Tagalog](https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katotohanan \"Katotohanan \u2013 Tagalog\")\n*   [T\u00fcrk\u00e7e](https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ger%C3%A7ek \"Ger\u00e7ek \u2013 Turkish\")\n*   [\u0422\u0430\u0442\u0430\u0440\u0447\u0430 / tatar\u00e7a](https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%8B%D0%B9%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%8C \"\u0425\u0430\u043a\u044b\u0439\u043a\u0430\u0442\u044c \u2013 Tatar\")\n*   [\u0423\u043a\u0440\u0430\u0457\u043d\u0441\u044c\u043a\u0430](https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%86%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0 \"\u0406\u0441\u0442\u0438\u043d\u0430 \u2013 Ukrainian\")\n*   [\u0627\u0631\u062f\u0648](https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%DA%86%D8%A7%D8%A6%DB%8C \"\u0633\u0686\u0627\u0626\u06cc \u2013 Urdu\")\n*   [O\u02bbzbekcha / \u045e\u0437\u0431\u0435\u043a\u0447\u0430](https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haqiqat \"Haqiqat \u2013 Uzbek\")\n*   [Ti\u1ebfng Vi\u1ec7t](https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ch%C3%A2n_l%C3%BD \"Ch\u00e2n l\u00fd \u2013 Vietnamese\")\n*   [Winaray](https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kamatooran \"Kamatooran \u2013 Waray\")\n*   [\u5434\u8bed](https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%9C%9F%E7%90%86 \"\u771f\u7406 \u2013 Wu\")\n*   [\u0425\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043c\u0433](https://xal.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D2%AE%D0%BD%D0%BD \"\u04ae\u043d\u043d \u2013 Kalmyk\")\n*   [\u05d9\u05d9\u05b4\u05d3\u05d9\u05e9](https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%9E%D7%AA \"\u05d0\u05de\u05ea \u2013 Yiddish\")\n*   [Vahcuengh](https://za.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caenleix \"Caenleix \u2013 Zhuang\")\n*   [\u6587\u8a00](https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%AF%A6 \"\u5be6 \u2013 Literary Chinese\")\n*   [\u95a9\u5357\u8a9e / B\u00e2n-l\u00e2m-g\u00ed](https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chin-l%C3%AD \"Chin-l\u00ed \u2013 Minnan\")\n*   [\u7cb5\u8a9e](https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%9C%9F \"\u771f \u2013 Cantonese\")\n*   [\u4e2d\u6587](https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%9C%9F%E7%90%86 \"\u771f\u7406 \u2013 Chinese\")\n\n[Edit links](https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q7949#sitelinks-wikipedia \"Edit interlanguage links\")\n\n*   [Article](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth \"View the content page [c]\")\n*   [Talk](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talk:Truth \"Discuss improvements to the content page [t]\")\n\n- [x] English \n\n*   [Read](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth)\n*   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Commons](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Truth)\n*   [Wikiquote](https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Truth)\n*   [Wikidata item](https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q7949 \"Structured data on this page hosted by Wikidata [g]\")\n\nAppearance\n\nmove to sidebar hide\n\nFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia\n\nConformity to reality\n\n\"The truth\" redirects here. For other uses of \"The truth\", see [The Truth (disambiguation)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Truth_(disambiguation) \"The Truth (disambiguation)\"). For other uses of \"Truth\", see [Truth (disambiguation)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth_(disambiguation) \"Truth (disambiguation)\").\n\n**Truth** is conformity to [reality](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reality \"Reality\") or fact. It contrasts with [falsity](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falsity \"Falsity\") or misrepresentation that fails to align with the world. Truth is typically treated as a [property](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Property_(philosophy) \"Property (philosophy)\") of [truthbearers](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth-bearer \"Truth-bearer\"), such as [sentences](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sentence_(linguistics) \"Sentence (linguistics)\"), [propositions](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proposition \"Proposition\"), or [beliefs](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belief \"Belief\") that describe things as they are. It is closely related to truthfulness, a [virtue](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtue \"Virtue\") associated with [honesty](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honesty \"Honesty\"), and to [truthlikeness](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truthlikeness \"Truthlikeness\"), a characteristic of theories that approximate the truth.\n\nVarious [theories of the nature of truth](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theories_of_truth \"Theories of truth\") have been proposed, but its precise definition remains contested. The [correspondence theory](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Correspondence_theory_of_truth \"Correspondence theory of truth\") holds that a statement is true if it corresponds to facts. According to the [coherence theory](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coherence_theory_of_truth \"Coherence theory of truth\"), truth consists in logical consistency and mutual support among beliefs. [Pragmatists](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pragmatic_theory_of_truth \"Pragmatic theory of truth\") understand truth in terms of practical consequences and epistemic practices, claiming that truth is what works or what would withstand the test of unlimited inquiry. The [semantic theory](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semantic_theory_of_truth \"Semantic theory of truth\") analyzes the [truth conditions](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth_conditions \"Truth conditions\") of sentences in an object language from the perspective of a [metalanguage](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metalanguage \"Metalanguage\"). [Deflationary theories](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deflationary_theory_of_truth \"Deflationary theory of truth\") argue that truth has no significant intrinsic nature, holding that the linguistic role of truth-related expressions exhausts the concept of truth. [Pluralists](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluralism_(philosophy) \"Pluralism (philosophy)\") assert that the definition of truth varies with the domain of analysis, while [relativists](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relativism \"Relativism\") maintain that the same statement can be true in one perspective and false in another. Theories of truth are challenged by logical [paradoxes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paradox \"Paradox\"), such as the [liar paradox](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liar_paradox \"Liar paradox\"). There are also discussions about the existence of additional truth values besides _true_ and _false_ and about the possibility of truth value gaps\u2014statements that have no truth value.\n\nPhilosophers distinguish types of truth by domain, content, and epistemic access, including _[a priori](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A\\_priori \"A priori\")_, necessary, [moral](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morality \"Morality\"), [aesthetic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aesthetic \"Aesthetic\"), [religious](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religious \"Religious\"), and [scientific](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific \"Scientific\") truths. Truth plays a central role in the sciences as a goal of inquiry. The empirical sciences seek truth through [observation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observation \"Observation\") and [experimentation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experimentation \"Experimentation\"), whereas the [formal sciences](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formal_sciences \"Formal sciences\") rely on [deductive reasoning](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deductive_reasoning \"Deductive reasoning\") from [fundamental principles](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axiom \"Axiom\"). Many religious traditions regard truth as a virtue and ground it in a divine source. Truth also acts as a guiding norm in the fields of [ethics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics \"Ethics\"), [law](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law \"Law\"), and [journalism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journalism \"Journalism\").\n\nDiscussions of truth arose in [antiquity](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_philosophy \"Ancient philosophy\") in [Hindu](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindu_philosophy \"Hindu philosophy\"), [Jain](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jain_philosophy \"Jain philosophy\"), [Buddhist](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy \"Buddhist philosophy\"), and [Greek thought](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy \"Ancient Greek philosophy\"). In the [medieval period](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medieval_period \"Medieval period\"), [Christian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_philosophy \"Christian philosophy\") and [Islamic philosophers](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_philosophy \"Islamic philosophy\") explored the relation between truth and [God](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/God \"God\"). Discussions in the modern and contemporary periods have addressed diverse topics, such as the nature of truth and its relation to thought, language, and reality.\n\n## Definition\n\n[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Truth&action=edit&section=1 \"Edit section: Definition\")]\n\nTruth is conformity to [facts](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Facts \"Facts\") or accordance with [reality](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reality \"Reality\"). It is often understood as a property of [statements](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proposition \"Proposition\") or [beliefs](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beliefs \"Beliefs\") that present the world as it is, or as a relation between language or thought and how things actually are. However, its precise definition is disputed, with different theories focusing on elements such as correspondence, coherence, or practical usefulness.[[1]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-1) In a slightly different sense, the term can also refer to genuineness, as in \"a true friend\" or \"true gold\", spiritual teachings, like \"the truth of the scriptures\", or facts themselves, such as \"in truth, the product was defective.\"[[2]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-2)\n\nTruth contrasts with [falsehood](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falsehood \"Falsehood\") or falsity, which encompasses misrepresentations that do not meet this standard and fail to align with reality. The [negation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Negation \"Negation\") of a true statement is a falsehood.[[3]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-3) Truth plays a central role in many human endeavors. It acts as a goal of inquiry when deciding what to believe and as a standard to which right conduct should conform by being responsive to how things actually are. People refer to truth to indicate reliable information, mark scientific findings well supported by [evidence](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence \"Evidence\"), distinguish accurate legal [testimony](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Testimony \"Testimony\") from misrepresentation, and emphasize honesty and sincerity in personal life. Truth is typically regarded as a positive value, either because of its beneficial consequences or as an [intrinsic good](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Value_theory#Intrinsic_and_instrumental \"Value theory\") pursued for its own sake.[[4]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-4)\n\nThe word _truth_ comes from the [Old English](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_English \"Old English\")_tr\u0113owth_, meaning 'fidelity'. It entered [Modern English](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modern_English \"Modern English\") via the [Middle English](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_English \"Middle English\") term _trewthe_.[[5]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-5)\n\n## Basic concepts\n\n[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Truth&action=edit&section=2 \"Edit section: Basic concepts\")]\n\n### Truthbearers\n\n[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Truth&action=edit&section=3 \"Edit section: Truthbearers\")]\n\nMain article: [Truthbearer](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truthbearer \"Truthbearer\")\n\nTruth is commonly treated as a feature of truthbearers\u2014entities that can be true or false. Philosophers discuss which entities serve as truthbearers, including [sentences](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sentence_(linguistics) \"Sentence (linguistics)\"), [propositions](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propositions \"Propositions\"), and [beliefs](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beliefs \"Beliefs\"). Sentences are concrete linguistic entities composed of strings of words, like \"It's raining in Nairobi.\" Their public nature and clear structure can aid philosophical analysis of truth-related phenomena. However, it is not always possible to establish a straightforward relation between a sentence and its truth value since its meaning can be [context](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Context \"Context\")-dependent and may also be influenced by [ambiguous](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ambiguous \"Ambiguous\") terms. As a result, a sentence may be true under one [interpretation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interpretation_(philosophy) \"Interpretation (philosophy)\") and false under another. Another difficulty is that sentences belong to specific languages, with the danger of limiting philosophical analysis to language-specific features rather than articulating universal principles.[[6]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-6)[[a]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-8)\n\nPropositions are typically understood as [abstract entities](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abstract_object \"Abstract object\") that serve as the meanings of declarative sentences, mitigating the difficulties of context dependence, ambiguity, and language specificity. However, their abstract nature can make philosophical discussions less tangible, and there is disagreement about the existence of abstract objects. Beliefs and related [mental states](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mental_states \"Mental states\") are concrete psychological entities, taking the form of subjective attitudes about what is the case. They establish a direct link between truth and [cognition](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognition \"Cognition\") but are difficult to study because of their private nature.[[8]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-9)\n\nMonists argue that there is only a single kind of truthbearer, while [pluralists](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluralism_(philosophy) \"Pluralism (philosophy)\") accept different kinds. Some identify one kind as primary, explaining the truth values of secondary truthbearers in terms of the primary one. For example, one proposal reduces the truth of beliefs to sentences since sentences can be used to express beliefs.[[9]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-10)\n\n### Truthmakers and truth conditions\n\n[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Truth&action=edit&section=4 \"Edit section: Truthmakers and truth conditions\")]\n\nMain articles: [Truthmaker](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truthmaker \"Truthmaker\") and [Truth condition](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth_condition \"Truth condition\")\n\n[![Image 4: David Malet Armstrong.](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/DavidMArmstrong_%28cropped%29.jpg/250px-DavidMArmstrong_%28cropped%29.jpg)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:DavidMArmstrong_(cropped).jpg)\n\n[David Malet Armstrong](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Malet_Armstrong \"David Malet Armstrong\") emphasized the role of truthmakers in establishing a connection between truth and being.[[10]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-auto5-11)\n\nVarious theories rely on the concept of truthmakers as the counterpart of truthbearers. A truthmaker is a real entity whose existence makes a truthbearer true, establishing a link between language or thought and the world. For example, an orange carrot could act as a truthmaker of the sentence \"the carrot is orange\". Truthmakers are often treated as [sufficient conditions](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Necessity_and_sufficiency \"Necessity and sufficiency\"): the existence of a truthmaker is enough for the sentence to be true, independent of other factors.[[11]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-12) Philosophers discuss which entities function as truthmakers, with candidates including facts or [states of affairs](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/States_of_affairs \"States of affairs\"), [tropes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trope_(philosophy) \"Trope (philosophy)\"), and [particular objects](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Particulars \"Particulars\").[[12]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-13)\n\nTruthmakers are closely related to truth conditions, which are ways or circumstances under which a statement is true. Truth conditions are requirements of how the world must be for a statement to be true. For instance, one truth condition of the sentence \"it is raining\" is that raindrops are falling. Truth conditions are often treated as necessary conditions: if a truth condition does not obtain, then the sentence cannot be true, independent of other factors.[[13]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-14)[[b]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-16) A key motivation for truthmakers and truth conditions is the idea that truth depends on reality: truth is not a free-floating convention but is anchored in how things are.[[15]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-17)\n\n### Others\n\n[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Truth&action=edit&section=5 \"Edit section: Others\")]\n\nTruthfulness is a [virtue](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtue \"Virtue\")[[c]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-19) associated with [honesty](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honesty \"Honesty\") and consistency among one's words, beliefs, and behavior. It is closely related to speaking the truth but differs in some key aspects. For example, if a person sincerely states a belief, they may be truthful even if the belief is false. Conversely, someone may state a truth with the intent to [deceive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deception \"Deception\"), or a [liar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liar \"Liar\") may accidentally tell a truth. In both cases, truth alone is insufficient for truthfulness. Truthfulness contrasts with deception and dishonesty. Lying occurs when a speaker intentionally says something they believe to be false.[[17]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-20)[Bullshitting](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On_Bullshit \"On Bullshit\") is a related phenomenon in which a speaker is indifferent to truth or falsehood, for instance, because they only care about persuading or manipulating their audience. [Truthiness](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truthiness \"Truthiness\"), a similar term, refers to the tendency to prioritize intuition and [gut feelings](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gut_feelings \"Gut feelings\") over evidence and [rational analysis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rationality \"Rationality\").[[18]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-21) Its meaning overlaps with the term _[post-truth](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post-truth \"Post-truth\")_, which denotes situations in which [public opinion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_opinion \"Public opinion\") is shaped by [appeal to emotions](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Appeal_to_emotions \"Appeal to emotions\") rather than objective facts.[[19]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-22) Deception can also take [non-verbal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-verbal_communication \"Non-verbal communication\") forms, such as edited photographs, [deepfakes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deepfakes \"Deepfakes\"), and [AI-generated content](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AI-generated_content \"AI-generated content\") intended to mislead or fabricate events.[[20]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-23)\n\n[Truthlikeness](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truthlikeness \"Truthlikeness\") or verisimilitude is a concept applied to theories or statements that are close to the truth. It is often used in the context of inquiry to indicate that a theory is not fully true but approximates this goal better than others. For example, [heliocentrism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliocentrism \"Heliocentrism\") is a model of the [Solar System](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System \"Solar System\") that is correct in certain aspects, like that planets orbit around the sun, and wrong in others, like claiming that the orbits are perfect circles. As a result, heliocentrism is not true in a strict sense but truthlike. Truthlikeness comes in degrees. For instance, heliocentrism is more truthlike than [geocentrism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geocentrism \"Geocentrism\"), which places the [Earth](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth \"Earth\") at the center of the universe.[[d]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-25) Different philosophical approaches to truthlikeness have been proposed. Some look at [logical consequences](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logical_consequences \"Logical consequences\"), arguing that a theory's degree of truthlikeness depends on the number of its true and false consequences. Others focus on [resemblance](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Similarity_(philosophy) \"Similarity (philosophy)\"), comparing how similar the theory's description is to the actual world.[[22]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-26) According to some suggestions, [truth itself also comes in degrees](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Degree_of_truth \"Degree of truth\"), an idea found in [fuzzy logics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuzzy_logics \"Fuzzy logics\"). However, the traditional view is that truth is [bivalent](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principle_of_bivalence \"Principle of bivalence\"): an assertion is either true or false with nothing in between.[[23]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-27)\n\nTruth is closely related to [justification](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Justification_(epistemology) \"Justification (epistemology)\") and [evidence](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence \"Evidence\") with some key differences. A belief is justified if it meets certain epistemic norms, for example, by resting on good reasons or strong evidence. Evidence for a proposition is something that supports its truth, such as [observation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observation \"Observation\") or reliable [testimony](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Testimony \"Testimony\"). Justification and evidence separate warranted beliefs from [superstition](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superstition \"Superstition\") and lucky guesses but do not guarantee truth: even well-founded beliefs can be false in unfavorable circumstances. If a justified belief is true, it may amount to [knowledge](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge \"Knowledge\"), which, unlike justification on its own, has truth as a core component.[[24]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-28)[Epistemologists](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistemologists \"Epistemologists\") discuss various sources of knowledge or how people may arrive at truth, such as [perception](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perception \"Perception\"), [introspection](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Introspection \"Introspection\"), [memory](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory \"Memory\"), [reason](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reason \"Reason\"), and testimony.[[25]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-29) Verification and [fact-checking](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fact-checking \"Fact-checking\") are processes that aim to assess the truth value of a proposition.[[26]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-30) They may rely on [criteria of truth](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criteria_of_truth \"Criteria of truth\"), which are standards by which one can recognize that a claim is true.[[27]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-31)\n\n## Theories\n\n[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Truth&action=edit&section=6 \"Edit section: Theories\")]\n\nMain article: [Theories of truth](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theories_of_truth \"Theories of truth\")\n\nTheories of truth aim to identify what all truths have in common. Their goal is not to list true statements but to clarify the [concept](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concept \"Concept\") of truth, discern its [essential features](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Essence \"Essence\"), and explain truth-related phenomena. There are disagreements about whether such features exist and whether a given feature is an essential component or an external criterion only indicating the presence of truth.[[28]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-32)\n\n### Correspondence\n\n[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Truth&action=edit&section=7 \"Edit section: Correspondence\")]\n\nMain article: [Correspondence theory of truth](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Correspondence_theory_of_truth \"Correspondence theory of truth\")\n\n[![Image 5: A red apple, and the statement \"[This] apple is red.\"](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Correspondence_theory_of_truth.svg/250px-Correspondence_theory_of_truth.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Correspondence_theory_of_truth.svg)\n\nAccording to the correspondence theory, a statement is true if it corresponds to facts.[[29]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-auto7-33)\n\nThe correspondence theory asserts that a belief or statement is true if it corresponds to facts. This view emphasizes the relation between thought or language and reality, arguing that truth matches how things are. It is one of the oldest and most influential theories of truth.[[29]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-auto7-33)\n\nCorrespondence theorists distinguish truthbearers from the reality they represent,[[e]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-35) but the precise relation between the two is disputed. Various suggestions have been made regarding the nature of truthbearers, like seeing them as propositions, sentences, or beliefs. The classical view analyzes their relation to reality in terms of objects and [properties](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Property_(philosophy) \"Property (philosophy)\"). It assumes that truthbearers have a subject-predicate structure, in which the [subject](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subject_(grammar) \"Subject (grammar)\") refers to an entity and the [predicate](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predicate_(grammar) \"Predicate (grammar)\") denotes a property. According to this view, a statement corresponds to reality if it refers to an entity that carries the denoted property. Fact-based theories, by contrast, hold that a statement expresses a fact, and it is true if the fact obtains.[[31]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-36) One version asserts a one-to-one correlation between truths and facts, while another understands correspondence more broadly as a structural similarity that does not require a perfect one-to-one mirroring.[[32]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-37)\n\n[Truthmaker theory](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truthmaker_theory \"Truthmaker theory\") is closely related to correspondence theory and is often treated as a modern version of it.[[33]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-38) Truthmaker theory stresses that truth depends on reality and analyzes the relation between truths and their truthmakers. Its most comprehensive form is truthmaker maximalism, which asserts that every truth has a truthmaker. Atomic truthmaker theory, by contrast, limits this view to simple statements and analyzes the truth of complex statements in terms of simpler ones.[[34]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-39)\n\nA key motivation for the correspondence theory is its intuitive appeal and its ability to ground truth in objective reality. A key challenge is to clarify how exactly truths relate to facts. Critics hold that the correspondence theory is uninformative or circular because it fails to explain what _correspondence_ means. They argue that it assumes an implicit understanding of the relation without offering an independent account. Another objection asserts that the correspondence theory is too narrow because it is unable to explain truth in fields like mathematics, logic, and morality, where it is more difficult to identify independent facts corresponding to statements.[[35]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-40)\n\n### Coherence\n\n[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Truth&action=edit&section=8 \"Edit section: Coherence\")]\n\nMain article: [Coherence theory of truth](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coherence_theory_of_truth \"Coherence theory of truth\")\n\n[![Image 6: Diagram of three beliefs and arrows between them](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Coherence_theory_of_truth.svg/250px-Coherence_theory_of_truth.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Coherence_theory_of_truth.svg)\n\nThe coherence theory understands truth as logical consistency and mutual support among beliefs.[[36]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-auto6-41)\n\nThe coherence theory understands truth[[f]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-43) as a relation between beliefs rather than between a belief and a fact. It asserts that a belief is true if it is part of a coherent web of beliefs. Coherence theorists typically stress that beliefs do not occur in isolation but are part of a broader perspective on reality since they depend on conceptual frameworks and background assumptions not explicitly represented in the content of each belief. For example, the belief that [photons](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photons \"Photons\") lack mass rests on a network of ideas from [particle physics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Particle_physics \"Particle physics\") that ground its meaning and ramifications. Accordingly, coherence theory is associated with a form of [holism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holism \"Holism\") that privileges comprehensive perspectives over individual beliefs.[[36]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-auto6-41)[[g]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-45)\n\nDifferent suggestions for the nature of coherence have been proposed. A minimal requirement is usually that the beliefs are [logically consistent](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consistency \"Consistency\"): they do not contradict each other. Another often-discussed condition is that the beliefs support each other, meaning that a collection of unrelated but consistent beliefs is not sufficient for coherence.[[39]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-46) In the strongest form, coherentism requires that all beliefs cohere. Less demanding versions assert that only the majority of beliefs need to cohere or that coherence is required within specific domains, such as scientific or moral beliefs, but not across domains.[[40]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-47)\n\nOne criticism acknowledges that coherence is relevant for testing or verifying what is true but contends that coherence theory confuses criteria of verification with truth itself. Another objection argues that there can be competing coherent sets of beliefs where one set contradicts the other, meaning that coherence alone cannot determine which set is correct. For example, a fictional story does not become true just because it is coherent.[[36]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-auto6-41)\n\n### Pragmatic\n\n[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Truth&action=edit&section=9 \"Edit section: Pragmatic\")]\n\nMain article: [Pragmatic theory of truth](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pragmatic_theory_of_truth \"Pragmatic theory of truth\")\n\nThe pragmatic or [pragmatist](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pragmatism \"Pragmatism\") theory is a family of views that understand truth in terms of practical consequences and epistemic practices. They characterize truth by the role it plays in human affairs, seeing it as embedded in communal practices, epistemic commitments, or norms of discourse. One version asserts that a belief is true if it is practically useful because holding it and acting in accordance with it has beneficial consequences. This view argues that truth is what works, emphasizing real-life outcomes over speculative abstractions. Pragmatists discuss whether this outlook should focus on individual beliefs or comprehensive belief systems assessed over long periods.[[41]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-48)\n\nA central difficulty for utility-based theories is that practical consequences and usefulness depend on situations and desires. This can lead to [subjectivism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subjectivism \"Subjectivism\") or [relativism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relativism \"Relativism\") since what is useful in one case may not be in another. Another challenge is that although practical consequences often align with truth, this is not always the case: a false belief may have good consequences in certain situations.[[42]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-49)\n\nA different version of pragmatism defines truth from the perspective of scientific research. It holds that truth is the ideal limit of inquiry or what researchers would believe after unlimited investigation. Other pragmatist approaches define truth as beliefs that have withstood thorough examination or as statements that fulfill discourse norms and can be asserted with warrant.[[43]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-50)\n\n### Semantic\n\n[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Truth&action=edit&section=10 \"Edit section: Semantic\")]\n\nMain article: [Semantic theory of truth](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semantic_theory_of_truth \"Semantic theory of truth\")\n\n[![Image 7: Alfred Tarski.](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Alfred_Tarski_1968_%28as-is%2C_cropped%29_%28cropped%29.jpg/250px-Alfred_Tarski_1968_%28as-is%2C_cropped%29_%28cropped%29.jpg)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Alfred_Tarski_1968_(as-is,_cropped)_(cropped).jpg)\n\n[Alfred Tarski](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_Tarski \"Alfred Tarski\") formulated the semantic theory of truth.[[44]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-51)\n\nThe semantic theory characterizes truth in terms of [truth conditions](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth_conditions \"Truth conditions\"). It distinguishes between an object language, which contains true sentences that are being analyzed, and a [meta-language](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meta-language \"Meta-language\") to express their truth conditions using so-called T-sentences. T-sentences have the form: '\"{\\displaystyle S}![Image 8: {\\displaystyle S}](https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/4611d85173cd3b508e67077d4a1252c9c05abca2)\" is true in {\\displaystyle L}![Image 9: {\\displaystyle L}](https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/103168b86f781fe6e9a4a87b8ea1cebe0ad4ede8) if and only if {\\displaystyle p}![Image 10: {\\displaystyle p}](https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/81eac1e205430d1f40810df36a0edffdc367af36)' where {\\displaystyle L}![Image 11: {\\displaystyle L}](https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/103168b86f781fe6e9a4a87b8ea1cebe0ad4ede8) is the object language, {\\displaystyle S}![Image 12: {\\displaystyle S}](https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/4611d85173cd3b508e67077d4a1252c9c05abca2) is a sentence of the object language, and {\\displaystyle p}![Image 13: {\\displaystyle p}](https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/81eac1e205430d1f40810df36a0edffdc367af36) is a sentence of the meta-language describing truth conditions. For example, '\"La nieve es blanca.\" is true in Spanish if and only if snow is white' is a T-sentence with Spanish as the object language and English as the meta-language. The semantic theory was originally formulated by [Alfred Tarski](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_Tarski \"Alfred Tarski\"), who limited it to the analysis of [formal languages](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formal_languages \"Formal languages\"). Subsequent philosophers, such as [Donald Davidson](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donald_Davidson_(philosopher) \"Donald Davidson (philosopher)\"), have also applied it to [natural languages](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_languages \"Natural languages\"). The semantic theory is often combined with the idea that truth conditions can be analyzed by [studying the components of sentences](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principle_of_compositionality \"Principle of compositionality\"), such as names and predicates, which are then interpreted to refer to certain entities or situations described in the truth conditions.[[45]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-auto2-52)\n\nA key motivation for the semantic theory is its ability to characterize truth in a precise manner without introducing metaphysical assumptions concerning the existence and nature of facts, correspondence, or coherence. By talking about truth in the object language through a metalanguage, it also avoids paradoxes that arise if a language contains its own truth-predicate, such as the liar paradox. However, it is controversial to what extent the semantic theory offers substantial insights into the nature of truth rather than only providing a formal device for analyzing truth.[[46]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-53)\n\n### Deflationary\n\n[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Truth&action=edit&section=11 \"Edit section: Deflationary\")]\n\nMain article: [Deflationary theory of truth](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deflationary_theory_of_truth \"Deflationary theory of truth\")\n\n[![Image 14: Painting: Pontius Pilate (left) asks Jesus (right) \"What is truth?\"](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/What_is_truth.jpg/250px-What_is_truth.jpg)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:What_is_truth.jpg)\n\nAn early skepticism about the nature of truth is expressed in [Pontius Pilate](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pontius_Pilate \"Pontius Pilate\")'s rhetorical question to [Jesus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jesus \"Jesus\"), asking \"[What is truth?](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_18:38 \"John 18:38\")\"[[47]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-54)\n\nDeflationary theories argue that truth has no significant or interesting intrinsic nature. They hold that attempts by substantive or robust theories, such as correspondence theory and coherence theory, misconstrue truth by assuming a deep metaphysical structure, engaging in pseudoproblems where trivial answers would suffice. Deflationists typically analyze how truth-related expressions are used in language, holding that understanding their linguistic roles exhausts the concept of truth.[[48]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-55)\n\nDifferent deflationary theories propose distinct accounts of the linguistic function of truth-related terms.[[h]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-57) The [redundancy theory](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Redundancy_theory_of_truth \"Redundancy theory of truth\") asserts that the predicate \"is true\" is superfluous and does not contribute to meaning. According to this view, the sentences 'Snow is white.' and '\"Snow is white\" is true.' have the same meaning. Disquotationalism holds that the predicate \"is true\" acts as a linguistic device to remove quotation marks and make generalizations. The performative theory treats truth as a performative expression that speakers can use to endorse statements, like when saying \"That's true.\" [Prosententialism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prosententialism \"Prosententialism\") treats truth not as a regular predicate but as an operator. This operator can be applied to expressions that refer to other statements, as in \"What Smith said is true.\" Minimalism understands truth as a logical property whose role is expressed in T-sentences.[[50]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-58)\n\nVarious criticisms of deflationism target specific versions of it, such as criticisms of the redundancy theory or minimalism. However, there are also broader objections that seek to undermine deflationism in general. One argument holds that deflationism fails to explain key aspects of truth, like that truth serves as the aim of beliefs or that theoretical truth can lead to practical success.[[51]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-59)\n\n### Others\n\n[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Truth&action=edit&section=12 \"Edit section: Others\")]\n\n[Pluralists](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluralist_theories_of_truth \"Pluralist theories of truth\") hold that there is no unified concept of truth that covers all cases. Instead, they argue that truth is a heterogeneous notion and that different theories apply to different domains. For example, a pluralist may accept the correspondence theory for empirical truths but adopt the coherence theory for mathematical truths.[[52]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-60)\n\nAbsolutism asserts that truth is the same for everyone, meaning that what is true does not depend on individual standpoints, opinions, or contexts. It contrasts with [relativism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relativism \"Relativism\"), which maintains that the same statement can be true in one perspective or [context](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contextualism \"Contextualism\") and false in another.[[53]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-61) Local relativism limits this dependency to particular domains, such as moral truth. Global relativism, by contrast, extends this view to all truths. Critics argue that global relativism is self-defeating theory that undermines its own authority: applied to itself, it holds that it is only true in some perspectives that all truths are relative.[[54]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-62)[Nihilism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nihilism#Skepticism \"Nihilism\") or skepticism about truth[[i]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-64) presents a more radical view that rejects the existence of truth.[[56]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-65)\n\nOne common categorization divides theories of truth into [realism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophical_realism \"Philosophical realism\") and [anti-realism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-realism \"Anti-realism\"). Realists see truth as an objective feature that is determined by what the world is like and exists independently of thoughts and descriptions. Anti-realists argue that truth depends in part or entirely on the epistemic situation or how beliefs relate to justification, verification, inquiry, or one another.[[57]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-66) Realism is typically associated with absolutism, while anti-realism is more closely linked to relativism.[[58]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-67)\n\n[Verificationism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verificationism \"Verificationism\") argues that a statement is true if it is verifiable. It maintains that the procedures for confirming or disconfirming claims are not external tests of truth but constitutive norms. Verificationists typically assert that there are different verification procedures for different claims, for example, that scientific claims about empirical phenomena require observation and experimentation, whereas mathematical claims are established through deductive proof.[[59]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-68) What is verifiable or falsifiable depends on the situation and the abilities of investigators, meaning that verificationist truth is not purely objective. Additionally, some statements may be neither verifiable nor falsifiable, raising the question of whether verificationism requires a third truth value or truth-value gaps.[[60]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-69) Verificationism is sometimes grouped with coherentism as an [epistemic theory](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistemic_theories_of_truth \"Epistemic theories of truth\"). Epistemic theories define truth in terms of epistemic concepts, including coherence, verifiability, [justification](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Justification_(epistemology) \"Justification (epistemology)\"), and [rationality](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rationality \"Rationality\").[[61]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-70)\n\n[![Image 15: Illustration of the undefined truth value of the proposition \"This proposition is false.\"](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Liar_paradox.svg/250px-Liar_paradox.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Liar_paradox.svg)\n\nThe liar paradox involves a proposition with an inconsistent truth assignment: if the proposition is true, it follows that it is false, and if it is false, it follows that it is true.[[62]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-71)\n\nThe identity theory holds that something is true if it is identical to reality. This view rejects the distinction between truthbearers and truthmakers, arguing that truths are facts rather than representations.[[63]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-72) Axiomatic theories are deductive theories based on a small number of [fundamental principles](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axiom \"Axiom\"). Instead of providing explicit definitions, they treat truth as a primitive or undefined concept and formulate general rules of how it behaves.[[64]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-73) According to the [consensus theory](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consensus_theory_of_truth \"Consensus theory of truth\"), proposed by [J\u00fcrgen Habermas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas \"J\u00fcrgen Habermas\"), truth is what people would agree upon under ideal circumstances.[[65]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-74) The term _folk theory of truth_ refers to widely held beliefs of ordinary people about truth, like the idea that a proposition is true if its negation is false.[[66]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-75)\n\nTheories of truth are challenged by various [paradoxes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paradoxes \"Paradoxes\") in which basic intuitions or principles yield [contradictory](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contradiction \"Contradiction\") conclusions. The [liar paradox](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liar_paradox \"Liar paradox\") involves a statement with an inconsistent truth assignment, like the claims \"I am lying\" or \"This statement is false\": if the statement is true, it follows that it is false, and if it is false, it follows that it is true. Other paradoxes include the [Curry paradox](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curry_paradox \"Curry paradox\"), the [Russell-Myhill paradox](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russell-Myhill_paradox \"Russell-Myhill paradox\"), and Grelling's paradox.[[67]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-76) Some paradoxes arise if a language contains its own [truth predicate](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth_predicate \"Truth predicate\").[[j]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-78) Tarski sought to avoid this problem by analyzing formal languages that do not have truth predicates. [Saul Kripke](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saul_Kripke \"Saul Kripke\") proposed a different approach that limits how truth predicates can be used within a language without excluding them.[[69]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-79)\n\n## Types\n\n[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Truth&action=edit&section=13 \"Edit section: Types\")]\n\n[![Image 16: The Pythagorean theorem: given a right triangle with legs of lengths a and b, and hypotenuse of length c, a^2 + b^2 = c^2](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Pythagorean_theorem2.svg/250px-Pythagorean_theorem2.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pythagorean_theorem2.svg)\n\nMathematical truths, like the [Pythagorean theorem](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pythagorean_theorem \"Pythagorean theorem\"), are traditionally categorized as _a priori_ truths.[[70]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-80)\n\nVarious types of truth are distinguished in the academic discourse by domain, content, and epistemic access. For some types, it is controversial whether they exist in a strict sense. The difference between _[a posteriori](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A\\_priori\\_and\\_a\\_posteriori \"A priori and a posteriori\")_ and _a priori_ truths rests on the source of knowledge. _A posteriori_ truths require sensory experience, such as observing that water boils at 100\u00b0C at [standard atmospheric pressure](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_atmospheric_pressure \"Standard atmospheric pressure\"). _A priori_ truths can be known through pure reasoning, such as a proof of a mathematical theorem.[[71]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-81) A related distinction is between [synthetic and analytic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analytic%E2%80%93synthetic_distinction \"Analytic\u2013synthetic distinction\") truths, based on the source of the truth. A sentence is synthetic if its truth depends on what the world is like, such as \"[Mount Everest](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Everest \"Mount Everest\") is the highest mountain on Earth\". A sentence is analytic if its truth depends only on the meanings of its terms, as in \"all bachelors are unmarried\".[[72]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-82)[[k]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-84)[Logical truths](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logical_truth \"Logical truth\") or [tautologies](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tautology_(logic) \"Tautology (logic)\") are a special class of analytic truths. Their truth is determined by the [logical form](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logical_form \"Logical form\") of statements, regardless of concrete contents, as in statements of the form \"if {\\displaystyle P}![Image 17: {\\displaystyle P}](https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/b4dc73bf40314945ff376bd363916a738548d40a), then {\\displaystyle P}![Image 18: {\\displaystyle P}](https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/b4dc73bf40314945ff376bd363916a738548d40a)\".[[74]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-85) The [negation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Negation \"Negation\") of a logical truth is a logical falsity or [contradiction](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contradiction \"Contradiction\"). Contradictions can take the form of affirming and denying the same idea within a single statement, as in \"the light is on and the light is not on\". Most logicians consider all contradictions to be false to avoid absurdity. One exception is the school of [dialetheism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialetheism \"Dialetheism\"), which holds that some contradictions are true, arguing that reality itself can be contradictory.[[75]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-86)\n\nA truth is necessary if it could not have been otherwise, meaning that it is true under all conceivable circumstances. A sentence is actually true if it correctly describes the actual world. A sentence is possibly true if there are conceivable circumstances where it is true, regardless of whether these circumstances obtain in the actual world.[[76]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-87)\n\n[Evaluative truths](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Value_theory \"Value theory\") are about what is good or bad in some sense. They include [ethical](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics \"Ethics\") truths, which assess the [moral](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morality \"Morality\") status of principles, actions, and persons, such as the claim \"murder is wrong\". [Aesthetic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aesthetic \"Aesthetic\") truths are about the appeal of entities, including judgments about what is [beautiful](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beauty \"Beauty\") and about the [meanings of artworks](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aesthetic_interpretation \"Aesthetic interpretation\"). Axiological nihilists and [error theorists](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Error_theory \"Error theory\") challenge the existence of evaluative truths, arguing that no values exist or that all value statements are false.[[77]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-88)[Subjectivism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subjectivism \"Subjectivism\"), another view, holds that they are [subjective](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subjectivity_and_objectivity_(philosophy) \"Subjectivity and objectivity (philosophy)\") truths. A subjective truth depends on individual attitudes or personal preferences, meaning that a statement may be true from the perspective of one person and false from another. They contrast with objective truths, which are verifiable and hold regardless of individual attitudes or perspectives.[[78]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-89)\n\nThe concept of religious truth encompasses core teachings and doctrines within religious traditions, addressing not only how things are but also how people relate to the world. They typically concern the [meaning of life](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life \"Meaning of life\"), the nature of [ultimate reality](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultimate_reality \"Ultimate reality\") and [the divine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_divine \"The divine\"), and the values and practices that should guide human conduct. Some traditions distinguish between absolute and relative truth, with absolute truth pointing to a [transcendent](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transcendence_(religion) \"Transcendence (religion)\"), divine reality while relative truth refers to conventional or context-dependent teachings for everyday life. Religious truths are often grounded in [faith](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faith \"Faith\"), drawing rationalist and scientific criticisms for lacking substantial [empirical evidence](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empirical_evidence \"Empirical evidence\").[[79]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-90)\n\nVarious forms of truth are distinguished by the field of inquiry they belong to. Scientific truths are well-established theories in the scientific community, validated through rigorous application of the [scientific method](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_method \"Scientific method\").[[80]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-auto4-91) In studying the empirical world, scientists often employ mathematical truths, which are abstract theorems or principles demonstrated through [deductive reasoning](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deductive_reasoning \"Deductive reasoning\") from [basic principles](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axioms \"Axioms\"). [Philosophers of mathematics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophers_of_mathematics \"Philosophers of mathematics\") discuss whether mathematical truths should be interpreted as insights into [mind-independent abstract objects](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_Platonism \"Mathematical Platonism\") or as human [constructions](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constructivism_(philosophy_of_mathematics) \"Constructivism (philosophy of mathematics)\") arising from formal frameworks and symbolic manipulation.[[81]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-92)[Historical truth](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History#Historical_objectivity \"History\") refers to the accurate presentation of past events, but it is controversial to what extent historians can achieve this ideal. Difficulties arise from the subjective nature of interpretation and the influence of personal values and biases when integrating evidence from diverse sources to arrive at a coherent narrative.[[82]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-93) Personal historical truth plays a role in [psychoanalysis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychoanalysis \"Psychoanalysis\") as a factor shaping an [individual's identity](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_identity \"Personal identity\"), such as the lasting effects of [traumatic childhood experiences](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adverse_childhood_experiences \"Adverse childhood experiences\"). The remembered events may diverge from objective reality due to distortions introduced by [repression](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Repression_(psychoanalysis) \"Repression (psychoanalysis)\") and [confabulation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confabulation \"Confabulation\").[[83]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-94)\n\nIn [logic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logic \"Logic\") and [semantics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semantics \"Semantics\"), truth _simpliciter_ is sometimes distinguished from truth relative to a certain context, such as truth in a [possible world](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Possible_world \"Possible world\") or in a [model](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Model_theory \"Model theory\"). A possible world is a way of how things could have been. For example, the dinosaurs went extinct in the actual world, but there are possible worlds where they survived. Accordingly, the sentence \"the dinosaurs were wiped out\" is true in the actual world but false in some possible worlds. Similarly, model theory uses models\u2014abstract mathematical structures\u2014to represent the meanings of logical terms and expressions. In this context, the truth value of a formula can depend on the model: it may be true in one model and false in another.[[84]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-95) A related problem in the [philosophy of literature](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_literature \"Philosophy of literature\") concerns truth in [fiction](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiction \"Fiction\"), referring to statements that accurately describe events or characters in the imagined universe of a work of fiction, such as the claim that [Harry Potter](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harry_Potter_(character) \"Harry Potter (character)\") wears glasses.[[85]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-96)\n\n## In various fields\n\n[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Truth&action=edit&section=14 \"Edit section: In various fields\")]\n\n### Science and philosophy\n\n[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Truth&action=edit&section=15 \"Edit section: Science and philosophy\")]\n\nTruth is central to many disciplines. It is often considered a goal of inquiry that guides scientific research and intellectual life.[[86]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-97) Empirical scientists formulate testable [hypotheses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypotheses \"Hypotheses\") to explain phenomena. They rely on [observation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observation \"Observation\") and [experimentation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experimentation \"Experimentation\") to collect objective data, comparing results with initial hypotheses to confirm or disconfirm theories.[[80]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-auto4-91) The [natural sciences](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_sciences \"Natural sciences\") engage in [quantitative research](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantitative_research \"Quantitative research\"), employing precise numerical measurements, often to arrive at exact general laws that can predict future outcomes. [Qualitative research](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qualitative_research \"Qualitative research\") is more common in the [social sciences](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_sciences \"Social sciences\"), where researchers examine cultural phenomena, social processes, and subjective experiences that may resist purely numerical interpretation.[[87]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-98)\n\nThe [formal sciences](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formal_sciences \"Formal sciences\") demonstrate the truth of theories through more abstract methods, usually based on [deductive reasoning](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deductive_reasoning \"Deductive reasoning\").[[88]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-99) For example, mathematicians employ [several proof methods](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_proof \"Mathematical proof\") to establish theorems, such as [direct proof](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_proof \"Direct proof\"), [proof by contradiction](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proof_by_contradiction \"Proof by contradiction\"), and [mathematical induction](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_induction \"Mathematical induction\").[[89]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-100)[Formal logic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formal_logic \"Formal logic\") studies the nature of deductive reasoning and the [rules of inference](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rules_of_inference \"Rules of inference\") it follows. A key principle in this field is that deductive inferences preserve truth: if all premises are true, then the conclusion cannot be false. Logicians develop [formal systems](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formal_systems \"Formal systems\")\u2014abstract frameworks that precisely encode forms of deductive reasoning\u2014and examine which truths can and cannot be proven within a given formal system.[[90]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-101)[[l]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-103)[Truth tables](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth_tables \"Truth tables\"), another tool in logic, express how the truth values of compound propositions depend on those of their constituent propositions.[[92]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-104)\n\nMany issues concerning the relation between truth and inquiry are addressed by [epistemology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistemology \"Epistemology\"), which studies the nature, origins, and limits of knowledge. This field treats truth as a central aspect of [knowledge](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge \"Knowledge\")[[m]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-106) and examines the ways of attaining it, including the approaches of the empirical and formal sciences.[[94]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-107) The [philosophy of language](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_language \"Philosophy of language\") and [semantics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semantics \"Semantics\") regard truth as an aspect of the meaning of sentences. They are interested in the relation between words, ideas, and the world and analyze phenomena that complicate this relation, such as [ambiguity](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ambiguity \"Ambiguity\"), [vagueness](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vagueness \"Vagueness\"), and [context](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Context \"Context\") dependence. They also address the problem of truth-value gaps: the question of whether some statements are neither true nor false.[[95]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-108)[[n]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-110)\n\n[Ethics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics \"Ethics\") is concerned with right behavior, including truth-related behavior. For example, [Immanuel Kant](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant \"Immanuel Kant\") argued that people have a duty to tell the truth and are prohibited from lying. In [metaethics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metaethics \"Metaethics\"), philosophers discuss whether moral statements and principles can be true, as [cognitivists](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moral_cognitivism \"Moral cognitivism\") claim, or not, as [non-cognitivists](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-cognitivism \"Non-cognitivism\") contend.[[97]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-111)\n\n### Religion and art\n\n[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Truth&action=edit&section=16 \"Edit section: Religion and art\")]\n\n[![Image 19: \"Al-Haqq\", written in Arabic](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Al-Haqq.svg/250px-Al-Haqq.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Al-Haqq.svg)\n\nThe [Abrahamic traditions](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abrahamic_religions \"Abrahamic religions\") associate truth with the divine, such as the [Islamic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic \"Islamic\") term _[Al-Haqq](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Haqq \"Al-Haqq\")_ (the Truth) as one of [Allah](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allah \"Allah\")'s names.[[98]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-112)\n\nTruth plays a central role [in many religions](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religious_views_on_truth \"Religious views on truth\"). The [Abrahamic traditions](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abrahamic_religions \"Abrahamic religions\") stress the importance of truthfulness and closely link truth to the divine, as reflected in the [Jewish](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewish \"Jewish\") description of God as _El Emet_ (God of truth), [Jesus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jesus \"Jesus\")'s statement \"[I am the way, the truth, and the life](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Via_et_veritas_et_vita \"Via et veritas et vita\")\" in [Christianity](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianity \"Christianity\"), and the [Islamic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic \"Islamic\") term _[Al-Haqq](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Haqq \"Al-Haqq\")_ (the Truth) as one of [Allah](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allah \"Allah\")'s names.[[99]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-113) Philosophers in these traditions have debated the relationship between the religious truths of [faith](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faith \"Faith\") and the philosophical truths of [reason](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reason \"Reason\"). They typically argue that apparent tensions are resolvable through right interpretation. An alternative approach relies on the doctrine of [double truth](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double_truth \"Double truth\"), according to which divergent truths can coexist in different domains.[[100]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-114)\n\nIn [Hinduism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hinduism \"Hinduism\"), truth or [satya](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satya \"Satya\") is a key virtue to be practiced in thought, speech, and action, and is considered a source of individual and societal [well-being](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Well-being \"Well-being\"). For example, it is one of the [five moral restraints](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yamas \"Yamas\") in [Patanjali's Yoga](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yoga_Sutras_of_Patanjali \"Yoga Sutras of Patanjali\").[[101]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-115) In [Buddhism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhism \"Buddhism\"), the concept of truth is closely related to [Buddha](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddha \"Buddha\")'s teachings, such as the doctrine of the [Four Noble Truths](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Four_Noble_Truths \"Four Noble Truths\") about the causes of [suffering](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dukkha \"Dukkha\") and the path to [liberation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nirvana \"Nirvana\").[[102]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-116) Buddhists also hold the [theory of two truths](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two_truths_doctrine \"Two truths doctrine\"), according to which conventional truth, associated with the phenomenal world and everyday experience, differs from ultimate truth, which concerns the fundamental nature of reality and is required for attaining liberation.[[103]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-117) A related contrast in [Jainism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jainism \"Jainism\") distinguishes between relative truth, which is limited to a particular time, place, and [perspective](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anekantavada \"Anekantavada\"), and absolute truth, which transcends individual viewpoints but cannot be fully expressed in language.[[104]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-118) A form of perspectivism is also found in [Taoism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taoism \"Taoism\"), which argues that knowledge is shaped by a person's interests and engagement with the world, with each perspective providing only a partial view of reality.[[105]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-119)\n\nTruth can also be expressed in the field of [art](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art \"Art\") by manifesting ideas or understanding through aesthetic phenomena. The meanings of artworks are not always directly accessible and may require [interpretation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aesthetic_interpretation \"Aesthetic interpretation\") to uncover. For example, a novel exploring the feelings and choices of fictional characters may reveal deeper truths about human nature and [moral dilemmas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moral_dilemmas \"Moral dilemmas\"). Artworks may also evoke experiences that a person has not felt before, showing them new perspectives, familiarizing them with alternative ways of life, or preparing them for possible future challenges. Aesthetic philosophers discuss whether or how the truths expressed in an artwork shape aesthetic experience and contribute to its overall value.[[106]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-120)\n\n### Others\n\n[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Truth&action=edit&section=17 \"Edit section: Others\")]\n\n[![Image 20: Photo of a statue of a robed woman holding a book](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Statue_of_Truth.jpg/250px-Statue_of_Truth.jpg)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Statue_of_Truth.jpg)\n\n[Walter Seymour Allward](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_Seymour_Allward \"Walter Seymour Allward\")'s _Veritas_ (Truth) outside [Supreme Court of Canada](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Canada \"Supreme Court of Canada\"), emphasizing truth as a guiding norm of law\n\nTruth plays a central role in [law](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law \"Law\") as a guiding norm to which legal processes and decisions should align. Because of difficulties in reconstructing what happened, this field relies on various [standards of proof](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burden_of_proof_(law) \"Burden of proof (law)\") and [evidentiary](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence_(law) \"Evidence (law)\") rules to ascertain pertinent facts. Consequently, truth by itself can be insufficient if it cannot be proven in [court](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Court \"Court\"), contrasting factual truth with legal truth.[[107]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-121)\n\nSimilarly, truth is a key element in [journalism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journalism \"Journalism\"), where reporters seek information from reliable sources and [fact-check](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fact-checking \"Fact-checking\") claims to accurately inform the public. [Media theorists](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Media_studies \"Media studies\") discuss obstacles to this process, such as the spread of [misinformation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Misinformation \"Misinformation\"), [misleadingly edited photographs](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photograph_manipulation \"Photograph manipulation\"), [AI-generated images](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AI-generated_image \"AI-generated image\"), [political propaganda](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_propaganda \"Political propaganda\"), and [algorithmic biases](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algorithmic_bias \"Algorithmic bias\") on social media platforms.[[108]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-122)\n\n[Psychologists](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychology \"Psychology\") and [cognitive scientists](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_science \"Cognitive science\") study [cognitions](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitions \"Cognitions\") as truth-related mental processes that acquire, transform, or use information. They examine different types of cognitive processes, like [perception](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perception \"Perception\"), [memory](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory \"Memory\"), and [thought](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thought \"Thought\"), and investigate how [biases](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_bias \"Cognitive bias\") and distortions affect these processes.[[109]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-123)\n\nIn [computer science](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_science \"Computer science\"), _true_ and _false_ are values of constants and variables belonging to the [Boolean data type](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boolean_data_type \"Boolean data type\"). One of their key applications happens in [control structures](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Control_structures \"Control structures\") that determine the flow of code execution, such as [conditional expressions](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conditional_(computer_programming) \"Conditional (computer programming)\") that execute a code path only if a test condition evaluates to _true_.[[110]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-124)\n\n[Probability theory](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Probability_theory \"Probability theory\") deals with uncertain information. It uses numbers between 0 and 1 to represent the [probability](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Probability \"Probability\") that a statement is true and provides rules for calculating how the probabilities of different statements influence each other.[[111]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-125)\n\n## History\n\n[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Truth&action=edit&section=18 \"Edit section: History\")]\n\n### Ancient and medieval\n\n[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Truth&action=edit&section=19 \"Edit section: Ancient and medieval\")]\n\n[![Image 21: Photo of a text written in Sanskrit](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/1500-1200_BCE_Rigveda%2C_manuscript_page_sample_i%2C_Mandala_1%2C_Hymn_1_%28Sukta_1%29%2C_Adhyaya_1%2C_lines_1.1.1_to_1.1.9%2C_Sanskrit%2C_Devanagari.jpg/250px-1500-1200_BCE_Rigveda%2C_manuscript_page_sample_i%2C_Mandala_1%2C_Hymn_1_%28Sukta_1%29%2C_Adhyaya_1%2C_lines_1.1.1_to_1.1.9%2C_Sanskrit%2C_Devanagari.jpg)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:1500-1200_BCE_Rigveda,_manuscript_page_sample_i,_Mandala_1,_Hymn_1_(Sukta_1),_Adhyaya_1,_lines_1.1.1_to_1.1.9,_Sanskrit,_Devanagari.jpg)\n\nThe [Rigveda](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rigveda \"Rigveda\"), an ancient Indian scripture, explored the relation between [cosmic truth](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%B9%9Ata \"\u1e5ata\") and [individual truth](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satya \"Satya\").[[112]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-auto3-126)\n\n[![Image 22: Bust of Aristotle.](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Aristotle_Altemps_Inv8575.jpg/250px-Aristotle_Altemps_Inv8575.jpg)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Aristotle_Altemps_Inv8575.jpg)\n\n[Aristotle](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotle \"Aristotle\") conceived an early form of the correspondence theory of truth.[[113]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-auto1-127)\n\nDiscussions of the role and nature of truth arose in [antiquity](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_history \"Ancient history\"). In [ancient India](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_India \"Ancient India\"), the [Rigveda](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rigveda \"Rigveda\"), composed in the 2nd millennium BCE, stressed the spiritual importance of truthfulness, exploring the relation between [the cosmic truth](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%B9%9Ata \"\u1e5ata\"), which concerns the laws of the universe, and [individual truth](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satya \"Satya\"), which concerns each individual's duty.[[112]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-auto3-126)[Jainism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jainism \"Jainism\") flourished in the 6th century BCE and distinguished relative truth that differs according to perspective from absolute truth that transcends [individual viewpoints](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anekantavada \"Anekantavada\").[[114]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-128)[Buddhism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhism \"Buddhism\"), originating roughly in the 6th century BCE,[[115]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-129) closely associated truth with [Buddha](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddha \"Buddha\")'s teachings and formulated the [two truths doctrine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two_truths_doctrine \"Two truths doctrine\"), according to which conventional truth of everyday life differs from ultimate truth about the fundamental nature of reality.[[116]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-130) The school of [Nyaya](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nyaya \"Nyaya\"), which arose around 200 CE,[[117]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-131) understood truth as a property of accurate cognitions, analyzing their internal structure in terms of objects, properties, and relations.[[118]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-132) The topic of truth received less attention in ancient Chinese thought, where the focus was more on right conduct and practical consequences than on abstract semantic properties of statements.[[119]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-133)\n\nIn [ancient Greek thought](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy \"Ancient Greek philosophy\"), truth was understood as _aletheia_ or disclosure, which could refer both to reality itself and to what is revealed to the mind.[[120]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-134)[Parmenides](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parmenides \"Parmenides\") (fl. 5th century BCE)[[121]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-135) distinguished truth from opinion, associating truth with thought and being while contrasting it with non-being.[[122]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-136)[Protagoras](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protagoras \"Protagoras\") (c. 490\u2013 c. 420 BCE) proposed a form of relativism according to which \"man is the measure of all things\".[[123]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-137) The [skeptics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_skepticism \"Ancient skepticism\") questioned the human ability to acquire truth and recommended [suspension of belief](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epoch%C3%A9 \"Epoch\u00e9\").[[124]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-138)[Plato](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plato \"Plato\") (c. 428\u2013 c. 348 BCE) formulated an account of true and false statements, linking truth to reality or the way things are. His student [Aristotle](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotle \"Aristotle\") (384\u2013322 BCE) conceived an early form of the correspondence theory of truth. He distinguished truthbearers in thought and speech from the things they describe, arguing that a statement is true if it aligns with how things are. Aristotle also separated truth itself from criteria of truth and held that something can be true even if no one thinks about it.[[113]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-auto1-127)[Stoicism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stoicism \"Stoicism\"), which emerged around 300 BCE,[[125]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-139) defended the [bivalence of truth](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principle_of_bivalence \"Principle of bivalence\"), according to which every proposition is either true or false, and distinguished propositions from uttered sentences and the reality they describe.[[126]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-140)\n\nAt the transition to the [medieval period](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medieval_philosophy \"Medieval philosophy\"), [Augustine of Hippo](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo \"Augustine of Hippo\") (354\u2013430 CE) integrated Greek philosophy with [Christian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianity \"Christianity\") doctrine. He held that truth is unchangeable, eternal, and necessary, maintaining that truth is identical to God.[[127]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-141) Building on Augustine's ideas, [Anselm of Canterbury](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anselm_of_Canterbury \"Anselm of Canterbury\") (1033\u20131109 CE) argued that statements are true only in a derivative sense since truth primarily resides in things that participate in God as the highest truth. Similarly, [Thomas Aquinas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas \"Thomas Aquinas\") (1225\u20131274 CE) conceived truth as a metaphysical property of entities. He maintained that a thing is true if it matches God's idea of it, analogous to how a designed artifact may perfectly correspond to what the artisan intended.[[128]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-142) In [Islamic thought](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_philosophy \"Islamic philosophy\"), [Avicenna](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avicenna \"Avicenna\") (c. 980\u20131037 CE) distinguished three senses of truth: as the reality of individual entities, as the divine reality of God as a necessary being, and as the correctness of statements.[[129]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-143)\n\n### Modern and contemporary\n\n[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Truth&action=edit&section=20 \"Edit section: Modern and contemporary\")]\n\n[![Image 23: Bust of Gottlob Frege.](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Wismar_Marienkirche_Bronzeb%C3%BCste_Gottlob_Frege_%2801-1%29.JPG/250px-Wismar_Marienkirche_Bronzeb%C3%BCste_Gottlob_Frege_%2801-1%29.JPG)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wismar_Marienkirche_Bronzeb%C3%BCste_Gottlob_Frege_(01-1).JPG)\n\n[Gottlob Frege](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gottlob_Frege \"Gottlob Frege\") examined the role of truth in logic.[[130]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-144)\n\n[![Image 24: Bertrand Russell.](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Russell1907-2.jpg/250px-Russell1907-2.jpg)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Russell1907-2.jpg)\n\n[Bertrand Russell](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertrand_Russell \"Bertrand Russell\") proposed an influential fact-based correspondence theory of truth.[[131]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-auto-145)\n\nIn [early modern philosophy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_modern_philosophy \"Early modern philosophy\"), [Ren\u00e9 Descartes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes \"Ren\u00e9 Descartes\") (1596\u20131650) examined truth from an epistemological perspective, arguing for the existence of clear and distinct ideas that are true and cannot be doubted.[[132]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-146)[Baruch Spinoza](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza \"Baruch Spinoza\") (1632\u20131677) asserted that human ideas are adequate or inadequate but not true in a strict sense since only ideas in God's mind are true.[[133]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-147)[John Locke](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Locke \"John Locke\") (1632\u20131704) maintained that thoughts or mental propositions are the primary truthbearers, understanding them as combinations of signs or ideas. He held that sentences or verbal propositions are true in a derivative sense if they express true mental propositions.[[134]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-148)\n\n[Immanuel Kant](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant \"Immanuel Kant\") understood [judgments](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judgments \"Judgments\") as the main truthbearers, arguing that a judgment is true if it agrees with its object. In his [transcendental idealism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transcendental_idealism \"Transcendental idealism\"), objects are not entirely independent of observers since the mind actively structures experience following inbuilt forms and [categories](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category_(Kant) \"Category (Kant)\"). This raises the question of the extent to which truth is objective or subjective.[[135]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-149)[Bernard Bolzano](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernard_Bolzano \"Bernard Bolzano\") (1781\u20131848) criticized this aspect of Kant's philosophy and proposed a clear distinction between subjective acts of representation and the objective contents of those acts, which can be true or false.[[136]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-150)[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel \"Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel\") (1770\u20131831) regarded truth as an agreement of a thing with its concept rather than a property of statements. According to his holistic vision, all finite things are strictly speaking false, and only the whole is true.[[137]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-151) Inspired by Hegel, [F. H. Bradley](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F._H._Bradley \"F. H. Bradley\") (1846\u20131924) agreed that truth ultimately resides in the whole or [the absolute](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absolute_(philosophy) \"Absolute (philosophy)\"). He held that truth comes in degrees based on the extent to which an entity aligns with the whole. His views are often interpreted as a form of coherence theory or identity theory.[[138]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-152)\n\n[S\u00f8ren Kierkegaard](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard \"S\u00f8ren Kierkegaard\") (1813\u20131855) emphasized subjective truth or how a person's inward commitments shape their existence, expressed in the slogan \"truth is subjectivity\".[[139]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-153)[Friedrich Nietzsche](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche \"Friedrich Nietzsche\") (1844\u20131900) understood truth as a moral phenomenon that serves the preservation and enhancement of life. He saw it as an expression of the [will to power](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Will_to_power \"Will to power\"), rejecting correspondence theory in favor of a [perspectivism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perspectivism \"Perspectivism\") that acknowledges multiple viewpoints without an overarching objective truth.[[140]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-154) In the [pragmatist](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pragmatism \"Pragmatism\") tradition, [William James](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_James \"William James\") (1842\u20131910) characterized truth in terms of practical consequences and utility, while [C. S. Peirce](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C._S._Peirce \"C. S. Peirce\") (1839\u20131914) argued that truth is what would result after endless scientific inquiry.[[141]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-155)\n\n[Gottlob Frege](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gottlob_Frege \"Gottlob Frege\") (1848\u20131925) examined the role of truth in logic, such as his ideas that sentences refer to truth values and that [logical operators](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logical_operators \"Logical operators\") and [predicates](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predicate_(logic) \"Predicate (logic)\") are functions that yield truth values. His outlook inspired deflationism, but not all of his views are compatible with this theory.[[142]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-156) In their early philosophies, [G. E. Moore](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G._E._Moore \"G. E. Moore\") (1873\u20131958) and [Bertrand Russell](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertrand_Russell \"Bertrand Russell\") (1872\u20131970) defended a kind of primitivism according to which truth is an indefinable property. They later proposed a fact-based correspondence theory, often treated as the classical formulation of this view, stating that a belief is true if it corresponds to a fact.[[131]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-auto-145) Responding to Russell, [Ludwig Wittgenstein](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein \"Ludwig Wittgenstein\") (1889\u20131951) defined truth as a form of correspondence in which a proposition [pictures a fact](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Picture_theory_of_language \"Picture theory of language\").[[143]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-157)\n\n[Alfred Tarski](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_Tarski \"Alfred Tarski\") (1901\u20131983) developed the [semantic theory of truth](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semantic_theory_of_truth \"Semantic theory of truth\"), which uses a meta-language to analyze the truth conditions of sentences in an object language. He limited this view to truth in [formal languages](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formal_languages \"Formal languages\"). [Donald Davidson](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donald_Davidson_(philosopher) \"Donald Davidson (philosopher)\") (1917\u20132003) extended Tarski's approach to the study of truth in [natural languages](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_languages \"Natural languages\").[[45]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-auto2-52)[David Malet Armstrong](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Malet_Armstrong \"David Malet Armstrong\") (1926\u20132014) developed [truthmaker theory](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truthmaker_theory \"Truthmaker theory\") as a modern version of correspondence theory. He stressed the dependence of truth on being and explored truthmaker theory as an approach to metaphysical inquiry.[[10]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-auto5-11)\n\nVarious deflationary theories in the 20th century aimed to show that truth is a trivial linguistic device without a deeper metaphysical significance, proposed by philosophers such as [P. F. Strawson](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P._F._Strawson \"P. F. Strawson\") (1919\u20132006), [Willard Van Orman Quine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine \"Willard Van Orman Quine\") (1908\u20132000), and [Paul Horwich](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Horwich \"Paul Horwich\") (born 1947).[[144]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-158)[Michael Dummett](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Dummett \"Michael Dummett\") (1925\u20132011) criticized deflationism and developed a form of verificationism according to which a statement is true if it is verifiable.[[145]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-159)[[o]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-161) Responding to the difficulties of providing a unified concept of truth, [Hilary Putnam](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hilary_Putnam \"Hilary Putnam\") (1926\u20132016) and [Richard Rorty](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Rorty \"Richard Rorty\") (1931\u20132007) formulated pluralist theories of truth, according to which the nature of truth is not uniform but depends on the analyzed domain.[[147]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-162)\n\n[Edmund Husserl](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmund_Husserl \"Edmund Husserl\") (1859\u20131938) analyzed truth from a [phenomenological](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy) \"Phenomenology (philosophy)\") perspective as an ideal correlate of intentional acts, emphasizing the role of evident experience.[[148]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-163) His student [Martin Heidegger](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Heidegger \"Martin Heidegger\") (1889\u20131976) understood truth as unconcealment in his attempt to recover the ancient Greek concept of _aletheia_, which he regarded as more fundamental than the modern concept of correspondence.[[149]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-164) In his [existentialist](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Existentialist \"Existentialist\") philosophy, [Jean-Paul Sartre](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Paul_Sartre \"Jean-Paul Sartre\") (1905\u20131980) characterized truth as \"subjectivity externalized\", understanding it as the way the mind-independent world is illuminated and becomes meaningful to human consciousness.[[150]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-165)[Postmodern philosophers](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postmodern_philosophy \"Postmodern philosophy\") challenged the idea that truth is objective and universal, analyzing how power relations and social contexts shape what is accepted as true. For example, [Michel Foucault](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michel_Foucault \"Michel Foucault\") explored the role of truth in discursive practices and social institutions, such as the idea that institutions determine what counts as truth and use it to wield power.[[151]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-166)\n\n## See also\n\n[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Truth&action=edit&section=21 \"Edit section: See also\")]\n\n*   ![Image 25](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/20px-Socrates.png)[Philosophy portal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Philosophy \"Portal:Philosophy\")\n*   ![Image 26](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Psi2.svg/40px-Psi2.svg.png)[Psychology portal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Psychology \"Portal:Psychology\")\n\n*   [Asha](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asha \"Asha\")\n*   [Slingshot argument](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slingshot_argument \"Slingshot argument\")\n\n## References\n\n[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Truth&action=edit&section=22 \"Edit section: References\")]\n\n### Notes\n\n[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Truth&action=edit&section=23 \"Edit section: Notes\")]\n\n1.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-8)**There are several versions of the view that sentences are truthbearers. Some theorists focus on general sentence types, while others prefer individual sentence [tokens](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Type%E2%80%93token_distinction \"Type\u2013token distinction\"), which are particular instances occurring in specific contexts. A common restriction limits the discussion to statements or declarative sentences, excluding sentences that do not have truth values, such as questions and commands.[[7]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-7)\n2.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-16)**[Truth-conditional semantics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth-conditional_semantics \"Truth-conditional semantics\") define sentence meaning through truth conditions: to understand a sentence is to grasp the circumstances in which it is true, with truth conditions as the necessary and sufficient conditions of its truth.[[14]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-15)\n3.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-19)**In a slightly different sense, _truthful_ is also used as a synonym of _true_ or _accurate_.[[16]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-18)\n4.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-25)**Truthlikeness can also be used to compare true assertions. For instance, the assertion \"spiders have more than two legs\" is less truthlike than the assertion \"spiders have eight legs\" because it is less precise.[[21]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-24)\n5.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-35)**This separates them from identity theorists, who argue that truths are identical to facts.[[30]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-34)\n6.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-43)**The coherence theory of truth is similar to the coherence theory of [knowledge](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge \"Knowledge\") but not identical.[[37]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-42)\n7.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-45)**Historically, coherentism is often linked to [metaphysical idealism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metaphysical_idealism \"Metaphysical idealism\").[[38]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-44)\n8.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-57)**One categorization groups deflationary theories into moderate deflationism, which accepts the idea that truth is a predicate in a logical sense, and radical deflationism, which rejects this view.[[49]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-56)\n9.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-64)**This view differs from [skepticism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophical_skepticism \"Philosophical skepticism\") about knowledge, an often-discussed view in [epistemology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistemology \"Epistemology\") that asks whether knowledge is possible.[[55]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-63)\n10.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-78)**A truth predicate is a linguistic device that ascribes truth to a sentence, like the expression \"... is true\".[[68]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-77)\n11.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-84)**_A priori_ truths are typically associated with analytic truths and _a posteriori_ truths are typically associated with synthetic truths, but the precise characterization of their relation is disputed.[[73]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-83)\n12.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-103)**Some formal systems introduce a [truth predicate](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth_predicate \"Truth predicate\") as a formal device to talk about the truth of sentences within the system.[[91]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-102)\n13.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-106)**Epistemology differs in this respect from [anthropology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropology \"Anthropology\") and [sociology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociology \"Sociology\"), which tend to characterize knowledge as ideas and practices that are shared and reproduced in societies, irrespective of their truth values.[[93]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-105)\n14.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-110)**Truth-value gaps are sometimes contrasted with contradictions in which a statement is both affirmed and denied, implying that it is both true and false.[[96]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-109)\n15.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-161)**The idea of verificationism was already discussed earlier by the [logical positivists](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logical_positivism \"Logical positivism\"). However, it is controversial whether they understood it only as a theory of meaning or also as a theory of truth.[[146]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_note-160)\n\n### Citations\n\n[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Truth&action=edit&section=24 \"Edit section: Citations\")]\n\n1.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-1)**\n\n    *   [Simmons 2006](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFSimmons2006), p.534\u2013535\n    *   [Glanzberg 2018](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFGlanzberg2018), pp.1\u20133\n    *   [Lowe 2005](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFLowe2005), pp.926\u2013927\n    *   [Lynch 2001](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFLynch2001), p.[1\u20133](https://books.google.com/books?id=zXzEP1SgMz8C&pg=PA1)\n\n2.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-2)**\n\n    *   [Oddie & Cevolani 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFOddieCevolani2022), Lead section\n    *   [Gr\u00f8n 2003](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFGr%C3%B8n2003), pp.901\u2013902\n    *   [AHD staff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFAHD_staff2022)\n    *   [MW staff 2026](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFMW_staff2026)\n\n3.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-3)**[Beall & Middleton 2024](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFBeallMiddleton2024), pp.6\u20137\n4.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-4)**\n\n    *   [Lynch 2001](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFLynch2001), p.[1\u20132](https://books.google.com/books?id=zXzEP1SgMz8C&pg=PA1)\n    *   [Oddie & Cevolani 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFOddieCevolani2022), Lead section\n    *   [Lynch 2004](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFLynch2004), pp.2\u20133, 12\u201315\n\n5.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-5)**\n\n    *   [MW staff 2026](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFMW_staff2026)\n    *   [AHD staff 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFAHD_staff2022)\n    *   [OED staff 2026](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFOED_staff2026)\n\n6.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-6)**\n\n    *   [Beall & Middleton 2024](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFBeallMiddleton2024), pp.7\u201311\n    *   [Dowden & Swartz](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFDowdenSwartz), Lead section, \u00a7 What Sorts of Things are True (or False)?\n    *   [Strollo 2023](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFStrollo2023), pp.1\u20134\n    *   [Glanzberg 2025](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFGlanzberg2025), \u00a7 6.1 Truth-bearers\n\n7.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-7)**\n\n    *   [Dowden & Swartz](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFDowdenSwartz), \u00a7 What Sorts of Things are True (or False)?\n    *   [Glanzberg 2025](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFGlanzberg2025), \u00a7 6.1 Truth-bearers, \u00a7 6.6 Truth and Assertion\n\n8.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-9)**\n\n    *   [Dowden & Swartz](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFDowdenSwartz), \u00a7 What Sorts of Things are True (or False)?\n    *   [Beall & Middleton 2024](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFBeallMiddleton2024), pp.7\u201311\n    *   [Strollo 2023](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFStrollo2023), pp.6\u20137\n\n9.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-10)**\n\n    *   [Strollo 2023](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFStrollo2023), pp.1\u20132\n    *   [Beall & Middleton 2024](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFBeallMiddleton2024), pp.7\u201311\n\n10.   ^ [_**a**_](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-auto5_11-0)[_**b**_](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-auto5_11-1)\n\n    *   [Asay](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFAsay), \u00a7 1. History of Truthmaker Theory\n    *   [Candlish & Damnjanovic 2007](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFCandlishDamnjanovic2007), pp.291\u2013292\n\n11.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-12)**\n\n    *   [Beall & Middleton 2024](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFBeallMiddleton2024), pp.152\n    *   [Armstrong 2004](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFArmstrong2004), pp.1\u20137\n    *   [Beebee & Dodd 2005](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFBeebeeDodd2005), pp.[2\u20133](https://books.google.com/books?id=l24TDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA2)\n\n12.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-13)**\n\n    *   [Asay](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFAsay), Lead section, \u00a7 4. Kinds of Truthmakers\n    *   [MacBride & Daly 2025](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFMacBrideDaly2025), \u00a7 2.5 Truth Supervenes Upon Being\n\n13.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-14)**\n\n    *   [Beall & Middleton 2024](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFBeallMiddleton2024), pp.11\u201312, 152\n    *   [Glanzberg 2025](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFGlanzberg2025), \u00a7 6.2 Truth and Truth Conditions\n\n14.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-15)**\n\n    *   [Shaw 2023](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFShaw2023), p.[190](https://books.google.com/books?id=zb2ZEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA190)\n    *   [Glanzberg 2025](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFGlanzberg2025), \u00a7 6.2 Truth and Truth Conditions\n    *   [Kearns 2011](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFKearns2011), pp.8\u201311\n\n15.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-17)**\n\n    *   [Beall & Middleton 2024](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFBeallMiddleton2024), pp.11\u201312, 152\n    *   [Armstrong 2004](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFArmstrong2004), pp.1\u20137\n    *   [MacBride & Daly 2025](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFMacBrideDaly2025), \u00a7 3.2 Truth Depends on Being\n\n16.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-18)**[AHD staff 2022a](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFAHD_staff2022a)\n17.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-20)**\n\n    *   [Cooper 2005](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFCooper2005), pp.927\u2013928\n    *   [Bok 1998](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFBok1998), Lead section, \u00a7 Truth, Truthfulness, Falsity and Deceit\n\n18.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-21)**\n\n    *   [Kozma & Schroer 2014](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFKozmaSchroer2014), pp.104\u2013105\n    *   [Johnson 2011](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFJohnson2011), \u00a7 3. Wikiality, Truthiness, and Gut Thinking: Doing Philosophy Colbert-Style\n\n19.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-22)**\n\n    *   [OUP staff 2016](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFOUP_staff2016)\n    *   [CUP staff 2026](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFCUP_staff2026)\n    *   [O'Callaghan 2020](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFO'Callaghan2020), pp.339\u2013340\n\n20.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-23)**\n\n    *   [Dynel 2018](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFDynel2018), pp.[236\u2013237](https://books.google.com/books?id=CZFdDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA236)\n    *   [Dhamani 2026](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFDhamani2026), p.[163](https://books.google.com/books?id=VayEEQAAQBAJ&pg=PA163)\n\n21.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-24)**[Oddie & Cevolani 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFOddieCevolani2022), Lead section, \u00a7 1. The Logical Problem\n22.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-26)**\n\n    *   [Niiniluoto 1987](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFNiiniluoto1987), pp.[xi\u2013x, 1\u20132]\n    *   [Oddie & Cevolani 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFOddieCevolani2022), Lead section, \u00a7 1. The Logical Problem, \u00a7 3. The Axiological Problem\n\n23.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-27)**[James 2005](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFJames2005), p.326\n24.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-28)**\n\n    *   [Blaauw & Pritchard 2005](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFBlaauwPritchard2005), pp.50\u201351, 92\u201395\n    *   [Goldman & Bender 2005](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFGoldmanBender2005), p.465\n    *   [Ichikawa & Steup 2018](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFIchikawaSteup2018), \u00a7 1.3 The Justification Condition\n    *   [Crumley II 2009](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFCrumley_II2009), p.149\n\n25.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-29)**\n\n    *   [Steup & Neta 2024](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFSteupNeta2024), \u00a7 5. Sources of Knowledge and Justification\n    *   [Hetherington](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFHetherington), \u00a7 3. Ways of Knowing\n    *   [Smith 2023](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFSmith2023), p.3\n\n26.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-30)**[Hickerson, Schwartz & Wright 2025](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFHickersonSchwartzWright2025), [\u00a7 Glossary: Fact-checking](https://books.google.com/books?id=Vk6dEQAAQBAJ&pg=PT122)\n27.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-31)**[Engel 2002](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFEngel2002), p.13\n28.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-32)**\n\n    *   [Beall & Middleton 2024](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFBeallMiddleton2024), pp.1\u20136\n    *   [Glanzberg 2018](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFGlanzberg2018), pp.1\u20132\n    *   [Engel 2002](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFEngel2002), pp.13, 35\n\n29.   ^ [_**a**_](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-auto7_33-0)[_**b**_](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-auto7_33-1)\n\n    *   [David 2025](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFDavid2025), Lead section\n    *   [Gr\u00f8n 2003](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFGr%C3%B8n2003), p.902\n    *   [Engel 2002](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFEngel2002), pp.14\u201315\n\n30.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-34)**[David 2018](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFDavid2018), p.245\n31.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-36)**\n\n    *   [David 2025](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFDavid2025), \u00a7 1. History of the Correspondence Theory\n    *   [David 2018](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFDavid2018), pp.238\u2013245\n\n32.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-37)**\n\n    *   [David 2025](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFDavid2025), \u00a7 6. Correspondence as Isomorphism\n    *   [David 2018](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFDavid2018), pp.245\u2013247\n\n33.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-38)**[Engel 2002](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFEngel2002), pp.21\u201323\n34.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-39)**\n\n    *   [Asay](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFAsay), Lead section, \u00a7 3. Maximalism and Non-Maximalism\n    *   [Beebee & Dodd 2005](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFBeebeeDodd2005), pp.[1\u20133](https://books.google.com/books?id=l24TDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1)\n    *   [Koons & Pickavance 2015](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFKoonsPickavance2015), pp.26\u201327, 31\u201332\n\n35.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-40)**\n\n    *   [Engel 2002](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFEngel2002), pp.14\u201326\n    *   [David 2025](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFDavid2025), \u00a7 4. Arguments for the Correspondence Theory, \u00a7 5. Objections to the Correspondence Theory\n    *   [Kirkham 1998](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFKirkham1998), Lead section, \u00a7 3. Objections to Correspondence Theories\n\n36.   ^ [_**a**_](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-auto6_41-0)[_**b**_](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-auto6_41-1)[_**c**_](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-auto6_41-2)\n\n    *   [Gr\u00f8n 2003](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFGr%C3%B8n2003), p.902\n    *   [Simmons 2006](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFSimmons2006), pp.536\n    *   [Engel 2002](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFEngel2002), pp.26\u201327\n\n37.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-42)**\n\n    *   [Fei 2023](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFFei2023), p.[79](https://books.google.com/books?id=Ot6uEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA79)\n    *   [Gr\u00f8n 2003](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFGr%C3%B8n2003), p.902\n\n38.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-44)**[Engel 2002](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFEngel2002), pp.29\n39.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-46)**\n\n    *   [Burgess & Burgess 2011](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFBurgessBurgess2011), pp.3\n    *   [Engel 2002](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFEngel2002), pp.26\u201327\n\n40.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-47)**[Engel 2002](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFEngel2002), pp.26\u201329\n41.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-48)**\n\n    *   [Engel 2002](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFEngel2002), pp.34\u201335\n    *   [Simmons 2006](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFSimmons2006), pp.537\n    *   [Capps 2023](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFCapps2023), Lead section\n    *   [Misak 2018](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFMisak2018), pp.283\u2013284\n\n42.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-49)**\n\n    *   [Engel 2002](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFEngel2002), pp.34\u201335\n    *   [Simmons 2006](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFSimmons2006), pp.537\n\n43.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-50)**\n\n    *   [Capps 2023](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFCapps2023), Lead section\n    *   [Engel 2002](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFEngel2002), pp.34\u201335\n    *   [Simmons 2006](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFSimmons2006), pp.537\n    *   [Gr\u00f8n 2003](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFGr%C3%B8n2003), p.902\u2013903\n\n44.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-51)**[Engel 2002](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFEngel2002), pp.47\u201350\n45.   ^ [_**a**_](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-auto2_52-0)[_**b**_](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-auto2_52-1)\n\n    *   [Simmons 2006](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFSimmons2006), pp.537\u2013538\n    *   [Engel 2002](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFEngel2002), pp.47\u201350\n    *   [Beall & Middleton 2024](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFBeallMiddleton2024), pp.49\u201356, 66\u201367\n    *   [Burgess & Burgess 2011](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFBurgessBurgess2011), pp.[16\u201319, 22](https://books.google.com/books?id=dGuYDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA16)\n\n46.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-53)**\n\n    *   [Engel 2002](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFEngel2002), pp.47\u201350\n    *   [Beall & Middleton 2024](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFBeallMiddleton2024), pp.66\u201367\n    *   [Burgess & Burgess 2011](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFBurgessBurgess2011), pp.[16\u201319](https://books.google.com/books?id=dGuYDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA16)\n\n47.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-54)**\n\n    *   [Burgess & Burgess 2011](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFBurgessBurgess2011), p.34\n    *   [Blackburn 2005](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFBlackburn2005), pp.59\u201360\n\n48.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-55)**\n\n    *   [Burgess & Burgess 2011](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFBurgessBurgess2011), pp.33\u201334\n    *   [Azzouni 2018](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFAzzouni2018), pp.477\u2013478\n    *   [Lynch 2001](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFLynch2001), p.[5](https://books.google.com/books?id=zXzEP1SgMz8C&pg=PA5)\n\n49.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-56)**[Burgess & Burgess 2011](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFBurgessBurgess2011), pp.34\u201344\n50.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-58)**\n\n    *   [Burgess & Burgess 2011](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFBurgessBurgess2011), pp.34\u201344\n    *   [Armour-Garb, Stoljar & Woodbridge 2023](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFArmour-GarbStoljarWoodbridge2023), Lead section, \u00a7 3. The Varieties of Contemporary Deflationism\n    *   [Azzouni 2018](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFAzzouni2018), pp.477\u2013479\n\n51.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-59)**\n\n    *   [Armour-Garb, Stoljar & Woodbridge 2023](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFArmour-GarbStoljarWoodbridge2023), \u00a7 4. Objections to Deflationism\n    *   [Burgess & Burgess 2011](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFBurgessBurgess2011), p.51\n\n52.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-60)**\n\n    *   [Beall & Middleton 2024](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFBeallMiddleton2024), pp.20, 110\n    *   [Pedersen & Lynch 2018](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFPedersenLynch2018), pp.543\u2013545\n    *   [Lynch 2004](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFLynch2004), pp.4\u20135\n\n53.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-61)**\n\n    *   [Blackburn 2005](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFBlackburn2005), pp.xiii\u2013xvii\n    *   [Cappelen & Huvenes 2018](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFCappelenHuvenes2018), pp.521\n\n54.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-62)**[Burgess & Burgess 2011](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFBurgessBurgess2011), pp.65\u201366\n55.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-63)**\n\n    *   [Stone 2000](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFStone2000), pp.527\u2013528\n    *   [Pedersen & Lynch 2018](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFPedersenLynch2018), pp.543\u2013544\n\n56.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-65)**\n\n    *   [Pedersen & Lynch 2018](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFPedersenLynch2018), pp.543\u2013544\n    *   [Pratt](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFPratt), \u00a7 1. Origins\n    *   [Asay 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFAsay2022), pp.687\u2013688\n    *   [Slocombe 2006](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFSlocombe2006), pp.4\u20135\n\n57.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-66)**\n\n    *   [Glanzberg 2025](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFGlanzberg2025), \u00a7 4. Realism and Anti-realism\n    *   [Burgess & Burgess 2011](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFBurgessBurgess2011), pp.5, 9\n    *   [Strollo 2023](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFStrollo2023), p.5\n\n58.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-67)**\n\n    *   [Young 1996](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFYoung1996), pp.68\u201369\n    *   [Young 1986](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFYoung1986), pp.503\u2013504\n\n59.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-68)**\n\n    *   [Engel 2002](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFEngel2002), pp.29\u201331\n    *   [Glanzberg 2025](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFGlanzberg2025), \u00a7 4.2 Anti-realism and truth\n\n60.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-69)**[Glanzberg 2025](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFGlanzberg2025), \u00a7 4.2 Anti-realism and truth\n61.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-70)**[Engel 2002](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFEngel2002), pp.27, 29\u201331\n62.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-71)**\n\n    *   [Deutsch 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFDeutsch2022), pp.533\u2013534\n    *   [Beall, Glanzberg & Ripley 2025](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFBeallGlanzbergRipley2025), Lead section\n\n63.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-72)**\n\n    *   [Engel 2002](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFEngel2002), pp.37\u201339\n    *   [Gaskin 2021](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFGaskin2021), Lead section\n\n64.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-73)**\n\n    *   [Fujimoto & Halbach 2018](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFFujimotoHalbach2018), pp.718\u2013719\n    *   [Halbach, Leigh & \u0141e\u0142yk 2025](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFHalbachLeigh%C5%81e%C5%82yk2025), Lead section\n\n65.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-74)**[Hesse 1978](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFHesse1978), pp.372, 379\u2013380\n66.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-75)**\n\n    *   [Lynch 2005](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFLynch2005), pp.29\u201330\n    *   [Ulatowski 2017](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFUlatowski2017), pp.[1\u20133](https://books.google.com/books?id=8ipADwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1)\n\n67.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-76)**\n\n    *   [Burgess & Burgess 2011](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFBurgessBurgess2011), pp.5\u20137, 119\n    *   [Field 2008](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFField2008), pp.[1\u20132, 23\u201324, 83\u201384](https://books.google.com/books?id=7KASDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1)\n    *   [Deutsch 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFDeutsch2022), pp.534\u2013535, 541\u2013543\n\n68.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-77)**[Engel 2002](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFEngel2002), pp.48\u201349\n69.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-79)**\n\n    *   [Field 2008](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFField2008), pp.[56\u201358](https://books.google.com/books?id=7KASDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA56)\n    *   [Engel 2002](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFEngel2002), pp.47\u201350\n\n70.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-80)**[Horsten 2023](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFHorsten2023), \u00a7 5.4 Mathematical Proof\n71.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-81)**\n\n    *   [Stroll 2023](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFStroll2023), \u00a7 A Priori and a Posteriori Knowledge\n    *   [Baehr](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFBaehr), Lead section\n    *   [Russell 2020](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFRussell2020), Lead section\n\n72.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-82)**\n\n    *   [Juhl & Loomis 2009](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFJuhlLoomis2009), pp.[ix\u2013x, 1\u20132](https://books.google.com/books?id=8kiPAgAAQBAJ&pg=PR9)\n    *   [Russell 2023](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFRussell2023)\n    *   [Pradhan 2019](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFPradhan2019), p.[75](https://books.google.com/books?id=DR-VDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA75)\n\n73.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-83)**[Weatherson 2016](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFWeatherson2016), pp.231\u2013233\n74.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-85)**\n\n    *   [Soames 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFSoames1999), pp.[120](https://books.google.com/books?id=LQ0nSJtm4KYC&pg=PA120)\n    *   [G\u00f3mez-Torrente 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFG%C3%B3mez-Torrente2022), Lead section, \u00a7 1. The Nature of Logical Truth\n    *   [Blackburn 2008](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFBlackburn2008)\n\n75.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-86)**\n\n    *   [Akiba 2020](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFAkiba2020), p.67\n    *   [Priest, Berto & Weber 2025](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFPriestBertoWeber2025), Lead section\n\n76.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-87)**\n\n    *   [Loux & Crisp 2017](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFLouxCrisp2017), pp.149\u2013150\n    *   [Parent](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFParent), Lead section\n\n77.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-88)**\n\n    *   [Oddie 2013](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFOddie2013), Lead section, \u00a7 Are Value Claims Truth Evaluable?, \u00a7 Do Value Claims Have Truth Makers?\n    *   [Oliver 1998](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFOliver1998)\n    *   [Zangwill 2024](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFZangwill2024), \u00a7 2.1 Aesthetic Truth\n\n78.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-89)**\n\n    *   [Solomon 2005](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFSolomon2005), p.900\n    *   [Lyon 2005](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFLyon2005), p.667\n\n79.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-90)**\n\n    *   [Streng 2005](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFStreng2005), pp.9368\u20139370\n    *   [Gr\u00f8n 2003](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFGr%C3%B8n2003), pp.903\u2013904\n\n80.   ^ [_**a**_](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-auto4_91-0)[_**b**_](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-auto4_91-1)\n\n    *   [Girifalco 2007](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFGirifalco2007), pp.267\u2013268\n    *   [Hatfield 1998](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFHatfield1998), Lead section\n\n81.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-92)**\n\n    *   [Nutting](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFNutting), Lead section, \u00a7 1. Introducing the Problem\n    *   [Horsten 2023](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFHorsten2023), Lead section\n    *   [Benacerraf 1973](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFBenacerraf1973), pp.661\u2013666\n\n82.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-93)**\n\n    *   [Haecker 1985](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFHaecker1985), pp.267\u2013268\n    *   [Carr 2006](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFCarr2006), \u00a7 2. \"Critical\" Philosophy of History: Philosophical Reflection on Historical Knowledge, \u00a7 3. Postmodern Skepticism and Its Critics\n\n83.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-94)**\n\n    *   [Akhtar 2009](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFAkhtar2009), pp.557\u2013558\n    *   [De Mijolla-Mellor 2005](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFDe_Mijolla-Mellor2005), pp.749\u2013750\n\n84.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-95)**\n\n    *   [Cresswell 2007](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFCresswell2007), p.[113](https://books.google.com/books?id=QOGO-sab1PIC&pg=PA113)\n    *   [Garson 2024](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFGarson2024), \u00a7 6. Possible Worlds Semantics\n    *   [Winter 2016](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFWinter2016), pp.[17\u201320, 24\u201327, 240\u2013241](https://books.google.com/books?id=aDRWDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA17)\n\n85.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-96)**\n\n    *   [Currie 1986](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFCurrie1986), pp.195\u2013196\n    *   [Bourne & Caddick Bourne 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFBourneCaddick_Bourne2022), pp.15\u201316\n\n86.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-97)**[Engel 2002](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFEngel2002), pp.1\u20132\n87.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-98)**\n\n    *   [Howell 2013](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFHowell2013), pp.193\u2013194\n    *   [Kasim 2006](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFKasim2006), pp.[29\u201330](https://books.google.com/books?id=9-TqIjCDp6YC&pg=PA29)\n    *   [Aspers & Corte 2019](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFAspersCorte2019), pp.139, 145\u2013148\n\n88.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-99)**\n\n    *   [L\u00f6we 2002](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFL%C3%B6we2002), pp.5\u20136\n    *   [Agazzi 2016](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFAgazzi2016), p.[27](https://books.google.com/books?id=nd0eEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA27)\n\n89.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-100)**[DeBonis 2025](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFDeBonis2025), pp.[17\u201318](https://books.google.com/books?id=RYdBEQAAQBAJ&pg=PA17)\n90.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-101)**\n\n    *   [Bonevac 1999](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFBonevac1999), pp.679\u2013681\n    *   [Hintikka 2019](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFHintikka2019), Lead section, \u00a7 Nature and Varieties of Logic\n\n91.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-102)**[Eberle 1984](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFEberle1984), pp.151\u2013152\n92.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-104)**[Marcus 2005](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFMarcus2005), p.928\n93.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-105)**\n\n    *   [Allwood 2013](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFAllwood2013), pp.[69\u201372](https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/9781118339893.wbeccp025)\n    *   [Barth 2002](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFBarth2002), p.1\n    *   [Tufari 2003](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFTufari2003), Lead section\n\n94.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-107)**\n\n    *   [Blaauw & Pritchard 2005](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFBlaauwPritchard2005), pp.49\u201350, 92\u201395, 101\n    *   [Bird 2010](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFBird2010), p.5\n\n95.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-108)**\n\n    *   [Williams 1998](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFWilliams1998), Lead section\n    *   [Beall & Middleton 2024](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFBeallMiddleton2024), pp.7\u201311\n    *   [Mcdowell 1982](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFMcdowell1982), pp.299\u2013300\n    *   [Cunningham 2009](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFCunningham2009), p.526\u2013531\n\n96.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-109)**[Priest, Berto & Weber 2025](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFPriestBertoWeber2025), Lead section\n97.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-111)**\n\n    *   [Mertens 2016](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFMertens2016), pp.27\u201328\n    *   [Engel 2002](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFEngel2002), pp.1\u20132\n    *   [DeLapp](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFDeLapp), \u00a7 3a. Cognitivism Versus Non-Cognitivism\n\n98.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-112)**[Streng 2005](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFStreng2005), pp.9368\u20139372\n99.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-113)**\n\n    *   [Streng 2005](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFStreng2005), pp.9368\u20139372\n    *   [Green 2002](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFGreen2002), p.[21](https://books.google.com/books?id=3FoYjBICoU8C&pg=PA21)\n\n100.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-114)**\n\n    *   [Taylor 2005](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFTaylor2005), pp.219\u2013220\n    *   [Wolenski 2004](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFWolenski2004), pp.10\u201311\n\n101.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-115)**\n\n    *   [Jones & Ryan 2007](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFJonesRyan2007), p.509\n    *   [Mohapatra & Mohapatra 1993](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFMohapatraMohapatra1993), p.[39](https://books.google.com/books?id=vpiU9m7T_tQC&pg=PA39)\n\n102.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-116)**[Sarao 2017](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFSarao2017), pp.150\u2013151\n103.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-117)**[Thakchoe 2025](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFThakchoe2025), Lead section\n104.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-118)**[Schwartz 2017](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFSchwartz2017), pp.1257\u20131258\n105.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-119)**\n\n    *   [Singh 2025](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFSingh2025), pp.146, 150\u2013151\n    *   [Connolly 2011](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFConnolly2011), pp.487\u2013488\n\n106.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-120)**\n\n    *   [Taylor 1998](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFTaylor1998), Lead section, \u00a7 2.Literature and Moral Insight, \u00a7 4. The Artistic Relevance of Truth\n    *   [Carroll 2006](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFCarroll2006), pp.333, 336\u2013337\n\n107.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-121)**\n\n    *   [Lawson 2017](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFLawson2017), pp.[1\u20132, 24](https://books.google.com/books?id=tZUtDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1)\n    *   [Mordini 2017](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFMordini2017), pp.[359](https://books.google.com/books?id=aZ0NDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA359)\n\n108.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-122)**\n\n    *   [Birks 2019](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFBirks2019), pp.[1\u20132](https://books.google.com/books?id=zaO-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1)\n    *   [Goldstein 2007](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFGoldstein2007), pp.[ix\u2013xii, 1\u20132, 126\u2013127](https://books.google.com/books?id=ha6i7TTKCtsC&pg=PR9)\n    *   [Zhang & Billard 2025](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFZhangBillard2025), pp.[84](https://books.google.com/books?id=JccdEQAAQBAJ&pg=PA84)\n\n109.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-123)**\n\n    *   [Matlin 2013](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFMatlin2013), pp.21\u201322, 419\u2013420, 427\u2013428\n    *   [Balota & Cortese 2000](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFBalotaCortese2000), pp.153\u2013154\n\n110.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-124)**\n\n    *   [Wagener 2004](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFWagener2004), pp.[209\u2013212](https://books.google.com/books?id=5Jaa1BVverIC&pg=PA209)\n    *   [Henderson 2009](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFHenderson2009), pp.[53\u201354](https://books.google.com/books?id=3Tla6d153uwC&pg=PA53)\n\n111.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-125)**[Belhaouari, Bensmail & Mehrdoust 2025](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFBelhaouariBensmailMehrdoust2025), pp.[99\u2013101](https://books.google.com/books?id=uYREEQAAQBAJ&pg=PA99)\n112.   ^ [_**a**_](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-auto3_126-0)[_**b**_](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-auto3_126-1)\n\n    *   [Brown 1972](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFBrown1972), pp.57\u201360\n    *   [Whitehouse 1983](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFWhitehouse1983), p.[430](https://books.google.com/books?id=jrexCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA430)\n\n113.   ^ [_**a**_](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-auto1_127-0)[_**b**_](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-auto1_127-1)\n\n    *   [Wole\u0144ski 2004](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFWole%C5%84ski2004), pp.354\u2013358\n    *   [O'Farrell 2003](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFO'Farrell2003), \u00a7 Greek Origins\n\n114.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-128)**\n\n    *   [Schwartz 2017](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFSchwartz2017), pp.1257\u20131258\n    *   [Nath 2016](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFNath2016), pp.[65\u201366](https://books.google.com/books?id=pxjOEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA65)\n\n115.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-129)**[DK staff 2018](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFDK_staff2018), p.[76](https://books.google.com/books?id=8rqpDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA76)\n116.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-130)**\n\n    *   [Sarao 2017](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFSarao2017), pp.150\u2013151\n    *   [Thakchoe 2025](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFThakchoe2025), Lead section\n\n117.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-131)**[Phillips 1998](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFPhillips1998), p.[39](https://books.google.com/books?id=z02WEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA39)\n118.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-132)**[Shaw 2024](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFShaw2024), pp.178\u2013184\n119.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-133)**\n\n    *   [Fraser 2020](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFFraser2020), pp.113\u2013117\n    *   [Fraser 2024](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFFraser2024), \u00a7 3. The Search for Objective Standards, \u00a7 4. Epistemology\n\n120.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-134)**[Wole\u0144ski 2004](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFWole%C5%84ski2004), pp.339\u2013342\n121.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-135)**[Palmer 2025](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFPalmer2025), Lead section\n122.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-136)**\n\n    *   [Wole\u0144ski 2004](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFWole%C5%84ski2004), pp.347\u2013349\n    *   [O'Farrell 2003](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFO'Farrell2003), \u00a7 Greek Origins\n\n123.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-137)**\n\n    *   [Wole\u0144ski 2004](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFWole%C5%84ski2004), pp.349\u2013350\n    *   [Bonazzi 2024](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFBonazzi2024), Lead section\n\n124.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-138)**[Vogt 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFVogt2022), Lead section\n125.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-139)**[Hill & Blazejak 2021](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFHillBlazejak2021), p.[4](https://books.google.com/books?id=UQE5EAAAQBAJ&pg=PA4)\n126.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-140)**\n\n    *   [Dentsoras 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFDentsoras2022), pp.107\u2013110\n    *   [McGrath & Frank 2024](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFMcGrathFrank2024), \u00a7 1. Brief History\n\n127.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-141)**[Cameron 2018](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFCameron2018), pp.50\u201352\n128.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-142)**\n\n    *   [Cameron 2018](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFCameron2018), pp.52\u201353\n    *   [O'Farrell 2003](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFO'Farrell2003), \u00a7 Patristic and Medieval Thought\n\n129.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-143)**[Lizzini 2023](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFLizzini2023), pp.246\u2013249, 258\u2013260\n130.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-144)**[Heck & May 2018](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFHeckMay2018), pp.193\u2013197, 200, 208\u2013209, 212\u2013213\n131.   ^ [_**a**_](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-auto_145-0)[_**b**_](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-auto_145-1)\n\n    *   [Candlish & Damnjanovic 2007](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFCandlishDamnjanovic2007), pp.228\u2013233\n    *   [David 2025](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFDavid2025), Lead section, \u00a7 1.2 Object-Based and Fact-Based Versions\n\n132.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-146)**\n\n    *   [Nelson 2018](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFNelson2018), pp.75\u201380\n    *   [O'Farrell 2003](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFO'Farrell2003), \u00a7 Modern Development\n\n133.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-147)**[Nelson 2018](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFNelson2018), pp.80\u201382\n134.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-148)**\n\n    *   [Nelson 2018](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFNelson2018), pp.83\u201385\n    *   [Murray & Tillman 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFMurrayTillman2022), p.9\n    *   [Powell 2022](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFPowell2022), pp.131\u2013133\n\n135.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-149)**\n\n    *   [Tolley 2018](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFTolley2018), pp.93\u201398\n    *   [O'Farrell 2003](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFO'Farrell2003), \u00a7 Modern Development\n\n136.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-150)**[Tolley 2018](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFTolley2018), pp.101\u2013103\n137.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-151)**[Magee 2010](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFMagee2010), pp.[250\u2013251](https://books.google.com/books?id=khvwPJMzNzMC&pg=PA250)\n138.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-152)**\n\n    *   [Baldwin 2018](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFBaldwin2018), pp.125\u2013128\n    *   [Candlish & Damnjanovic 2007](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFCandlishDamnjanovic2007), pp.233\u2013237\n\n139.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-153)**[Schacht 1973](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFSchacht1973), pp.297\u2013313\n140.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-154)**[Burnham 2014](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFBurnham2014), p.325\u2013329\n141.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-155)**\n\n    *   [Engel 2002](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFEngel2002), pp.34\u201335\n    *   [Capps 2023](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFCapps2023), Lead section\n    *   [Simmons 2006](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFSimmons2006), pp.537\n\n142.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-156)**\n\n    *   [Heck & May 2018](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFHeckMay2018), pp.193\u2013197, 200, 208\u2013209, 212\u2013213\n    *   [Dowden & Swartz](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFDowdenSwartz), \u00a7 7. Deflationary Theories\n\n143.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-157)**[Candlish & Damnjanovic 2007](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFCandlishDamnjanovic2007), pp.244\u2013245\n144.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-158)**\n\n    *   [Candlish & Damnjanovic 2007](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFCandlishDamnjanovic2007), pp.268\u2013269, 273, 288\n    *   [Engel 2002](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFEngel2002), pp.6, 44, 46, 50\u201351\n\n145.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-159)**\n\n    *   [Candlish & Damnjanovic 2007](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFCandlishDamnjanovic2007), pp.275\u2013279\n    *   [Engel 2002](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFEngel2002), pp.31\u201332, 52\n\n146.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-160)**[Candlish & Damnjanovic 2007](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFCandlishDamnjanovic2007), pp.254\u2013256\n147.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-162)**[Candlish & Damnjanovic 2007](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFCandlishDamnjanovic2007), pp.278, 301\u2013302\n148.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-163)**\n\n    *   [Dupre 1964](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFDupre1964), pp.345\n    *   [Dahlstrom 2001](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFDahlstrom2001), p.[34](https://books.google.com/books?id=2l7M6YHn9VoC&pg=PA34)\n\n149.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-164)**\n\n    *   [Wrathall 2025](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFWrathall2025), \u00a7 2.7 Truth\n    *   [O'Farrell 2003](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFO'Farrell2003), \u00a7 Contemporary Directions\n    *   [Engel 2002](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFEngel2002), pp.4\u20135\n\n150.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-165)**[Wider 1995](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFWider1995), pp.91\u201392\n151.   **[^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#cite_ref-166)**\n\n    *   [Engel 2002](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFEngel2002), pp.4\u20135\n    *   [Gutting & Oksala 2025](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFGuttingOksala2025), \u00a7 3. Major Works\n    *   [Trakakis 2015](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth#CITEREFTrakakis2015), pp.[35\u201336](https://books.google.com/books?id=XXdKCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA35)\n\n### Sources\n\n[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Truth&action=edit&section=25 \"Edit section: Sources\")]\n\n*   Agazzi, Evandro (2016). Dilworth, Craig (ed.). [_Right, Wrong and Science_](https://books.google.com/books?id=nd0eEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA27). Brill. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) \"ISBN (identifier)\")[978-90-04-33322-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-33322-2 \"Special:BookSources/978-90-04-33322-2\").\n*   AHD staff (2022). [\"Truth\"](https://ahdictionary.com/word/search.html?q=truth). _The American Heritage Dictionary_. HarperCollins. Retrieved 9 January 2026.\n*   AHD staff (2022a). [\"Truthful\"](https://ahdictionary.com/word/search.html?q=truthful). _The American Heritage Dictionary_. HarperCollins. Retrieved 9 January 2026.\n*   Akhtar, Salman (2009). \"Narrative Truth and Historical Truth\". _Comprehensive Dictionary of Psychoanalysis_. Karnac Books. pp.557\u2013558.\n*   Akiba, Ken (2020). _The Philosophy Major's Introduction to Philosophy: Concepts and Distinctions_. Routledge. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) \"ISBN (identifier)\")[978-1-000-16321-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-000-16321-6 \"Special:BookSources/978-1-000-16321-6\").\n*   Allwood, Carl Martin (2013). \"Anthropology of Knowledge\". [_The Encyclopedia of Cross-Cultural Psychology_](https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/9781118339893.wbeccp025). John Wiley & Sons, Inc. pp.69\u201372. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier) \"Doi (identifier)\"):[10.1002/9781118339893.wbeccp025](https://doi.org/10.1002%2F9781118339893.wbeccp025). [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) \"ISBN (identifier)\")[978-1-118-33989-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-118-33989-3 \"Special:BookSources/978-1-118-33989-3\").\n*   Armour-Garb, Bradley; Stoljar, Daniel; Woodbridge, James (2023). [\"Deflationism About Truth\"](https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/truth-deflationary/). _The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy_. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Retrieved 24 January 2026.\n*   Armstrong, David Malet (2004). _Truth and Truthmakers_. Cambridge University Press. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) \"ISBN (identifier)\")[978-0-511-31595-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-511-31595-4 \"Special:BookSources/978-0-511-31595-4\").\n*   Asay, Jamin. [\"Truthmaker Theory\"](https://iep.utm.edu/truth-ma/). _Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy_.\n*   Asay, Jamin (2022). \"Something is True\". _Philosophy and Phenomenological Research_. **105** (3): 687\u2013705. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier) \"Doi (identifier)\"):[10.1111/phpr.12836](https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fphpr.12836).\n*   Aspers, Patrik; Corte, Ugo (2019). [\"What is Qualitative in Qualitative Research\"](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6494783). _Qualitative Sociology_. **42** (2): 139\u2013160. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier) \"Doi (identifier)\"):[10.1007/s11133-019-9413-7](https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11133-019-9413-7). [PMC](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier) \"PMC (identifier)\")[6494783](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6494783).\n*   Azzouni, Jody (2018). \"17. Deflationist Truth\". In Glanzberg, Michael (ed.). _The Oxford Handbook of Truth_. Oxford University Press. pp.477\u2013502. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) \"ISBN (identifier)\")[978-0-19-174977-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-174977-3 \"Special:BookSources/978-0-19-174977-3\").\n*   Baehr, Jason S. [\"A Priori and A Posteriori\"](https://iep.utm.edu/apriori/). _Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy_. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20210807213522/https://iep.utm.edu/apriori/) from the original on 7 August 2021. Retrieved 17 September 2022.\n*   Baldwin, Thomas (2018). \"5. Truth in British Idealism and its Analytic Critics\". In Glanzberg, Michael (ed.). _The Oxford Handbook of Truth_. Oxford University Press. pp.125\u2013149. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) \"ISBN (identifier)\")[978-0-19-174977-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-174977-3 \"Special:BookSources/978-0-19-174977-3\").\n*   Balota, David A.; Cortese, Michael J. (2000). \"Cognitive Psychology: Theories\". In Kazdin, Alan E. (ed.). _Encyclopedia of Psychology_. Vol.2. American Psychological Association. pp.153\u2013158. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) \"ISBN (identifier)\")[978-1-55798-187-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-55798-187-5 \"Special:BookSources/978-1-55798-187-5\").\n*   Barth, Fredrik (2002). \"An Anthropology of Knowledge\". _Current Anthropology_. **43** (1): 1\u201318. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier) \"Doi (identifier)\"):[10.1086/324131](https://doi.org/10.1086%2F324131). [hdl](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hdl_(identifier) \"Hdl (identifier)\"):[1956/4191](https://hdl.handle.net/1956%2F4191). [ISSN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier) \"ISSN (identifier)\")[0011-3204](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0011-3204).\n*   Beall, Jc; Glanzberg, Michael; Ripley, Ellie (2025). [\"Liar Paradox\"](https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/liar-paradox/). _The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy_. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Retrieved 22 November 2025.\n*   Beall, Jc; Middleton, Ben (2024). _Truth: The Basics_. Taylor & Francis. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) \"ISBN (identifier)\")[978-1-003-81502-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-003-81502-0 \"Special:BookSources/978-1-003-81502-0\").\n*   Beebee, Helen; Dodd, Julian (2005). [_Truthmakers: The Contemporary Debate_](https://books.google.com/books?id=l24TDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1). Oxford University Press. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) \"ISBN (identifier)\")[978-0-19-928356-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-928356-9 \"Special:BookSources/978-0-19-928356-9\").\n*   Belhaouari, Samir Brahim; Bensmail, Halima; Mehrdoust, Farshid (2025). [_Discrete Mathematics, Probability Theory and Stochastic Processes: For Applications in Engineering and Computer Science_](https://books.google.com/books?id=uYREEQAAQBAJ&pg=PA99). Springer Nature. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) \"ISBN (identifier)\")[978-3-031-80589-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-031-80589-9 \"Special:BookSources/978-3-031-80589-9\").\n*   Benacerraf, Paul (1973). \"Mathematical Truth\". _The Journal of Philosophy_. **70** (19): 661\u2013679. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier) \"Doi (identifier)\"):[10.2307/2025075](https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2025075).\n*   [Bird, Alexander](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Bird \"Alexander Bird\") (2010). [\"The Epistemology of Science\u2014A Bird's-eye View\"](https://www.jstor.org/stable/40801354). _Synthese_. **175**: 5\u201316. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier) \"Doi (identifier)\"):[10.1007/s11229-010-9740-4](https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11229-010-9740-4). [ISSN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier) \"ISSN (identifier)\")[0039-7857](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0039-7857). [JSTOR](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier) \"JSTOR (identifier)\")[40801354](https://www.jstor.org/stable/40801354). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20240727035537/https://www.jstor.org/stable/40801354) from the original on 27 July 2024. Retrieved 30 July 2024.\n*   Birks, Jen (2019). [_Fact-Checking Journalism and Political Argumentation: A British Perspective_](https://books.google.com/books?id=zaO-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1). Palgrave Macmillan. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) \"ISBN (identifier)\")[978-3-030-30573-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-030-30573-4 \"Special:BookSources/978-3-030-30573-4\").\n*   Blaauw, Martijn; [Pritchard, Duncan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duncan_Pritchard \"Duncan Pritchard\") (2005). _Epistemology A\u2013Z_. Edinburgh University Press. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) \"ISBN (identifier)\")[978-0-7486-2213-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7486-2213-9 \"Special:BookSources/978-0-7486-2213-9\").\n*   Blackburn, Simon (2005). _Truth: A Guide_. Oxford University Press. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) \"ISBN (identifier)\")[978-0-19-516824-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-516824-2 \"Special:BookSources/978-0-19-516824-2\").\n*   Blackburn, Simon (2008). \"Logical Truth\". [_The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy_](https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803100112624) (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) \"ISBN (identifier)\")[978-0-19-954143-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-954143-0 \"Special:BookSources/978-0-19-954143-0\").\n*   Bok, Sissela (1998). \"Truthfulness\". _Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy_. Routledge. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier) \"Doi (identifier)\"):[10.4324/9780415249126-L106-1](https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9780415249126-L106-1). [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) \"ISBN (identifier)\")[978-0-415-25069-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-25069-6 \"Special:BookSources/978-0-415-25069-6\").\n*   Bonazzi, Mauro (2024). [\"Protagoras\"](https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/protagoras/). _The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy_. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Retrieved 29 January 2026.\n*   Bonevac, Daniel (1999). \"Philosophy of Logic\". In Audi, Robert (ed.). _The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy_. Cambridge University Press. pp.679\u2013681. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) \"ISBN (identifier)\")[978-1-107-64379-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-107-64379-6 \"Special:BookSources/978-1-107-64379-6\").\n*   Bourne, Craig; Caddick Bourne, Emily (2022). \"Elusive Fictional Truth\". _British Journal of Aesthetics_. **62** (1): 15\u201331. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier) \"Doi (identifier)\"):[10.1093/aesthj/ayab034](https://doi.org/10.1093%2Faesthj%2Fayab034). [hdl](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hdl_(identifier) \"Hdl (identifier)\"):[2299/26725](https://hdl.handle.net/2299%2F26725).\n*   Brown, W. Norman (1972). \"Duty as Truth in the Rig Veda\". In Ensink, Jacob; Gaeffke, Peter (eds.). _India Maior_. Brill. pp.57\u201367. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier) \"Doi (identifier)\"):[10.1163/9789004642805_007](https://doi.org/10.1163%2F9789004642805_007). [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) \"ISBN (identifier)\")[978-90-04-64280-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-64280-5 \"Special:BookSources/978-90-04-64280-5\").\n*   Burgess, Alexis G.; Burgess, John P. (2011). [_Truth_](https://books.google.com/books?id=dGuYDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1). Princeton University Press. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) \"ISBN (identifier)\")[978-0-691-16367-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-16367-3 \"Special:BookSources/978-0-691-16367-3\").\n*   Burnham, Douglas (2014). [_The Nietzsche Dictionary_](https://books.google.com/books?id=VjNuBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1). Bloomsbury Publishing. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) \"ISBN (identifier)\")[978-1-4411-8114-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4411-8114-5 \"Special:BookSources/978-1-4411-8114-5\").\n*   Cameron, Margaret (2018). \"2. Truth in the Middle Ages\". In Glanzberg, Michael (ed.). _The Oxford Handbook of Truth_. Oxford University Press. pp.50\u201374. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) \"ISBN (identifier)\")[978-0-19-174977-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-174977-3 \"Special:BookSources/978-0-19-174977-3\").\n*   Candlish, Stewart; Damnjanovic, Nic (2007). \"A Brief History of Truth\". In Jacquette, Dale (ed.). _Philosophy of Logic_. North Holland. pp.227\u2013323. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier) \"Doi (identifier)\"):[10.1016/B978-044451541-4/50012-9](https://doi.org/10.1016%2FB978-044451541-4%2F50012-9). [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) \"ISBN (identifier)\")[978-0-444-51541-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-444-51541-4 \"Special:BookSources/978-0-444-51541-4\").\n*   Cappelen, Herman; Huvenes, Torfinn Thomesen (2018). \"19. Relative Truth\". In Glanzberg, Michael (ed.). _The Oxford Handbook of Truth_. Oxford University Press. pp.517\u2013542. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) \"ISBN (identifier)\")[978-0-19-174977-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-174977-3 \"Special:BookSources/978-0-19-174977-3\").\n*   Capps, John (2023). [\"The Pragmatic Theory of Truth\"](https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/truth-pragmatic/). _The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy_. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Retrieved 23 January 2026.\n*   Carr, David (2006). [\"Philosophy of History\"](https://www.encyclopedia.com/humanities/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/philosophy-history). In Borchert, Donald M. (ed.). _Encyclopedia of Philosophy_. Vol.7: Oakeshott \u2013 Presupposition (2nd ed.). Thomson Gale, Macmillan Reference. pp.386\u2013399. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) \"ISBN (identifier)\")[978-0-02-865787-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-02-865787-5 \"Special:BookSources/978-0-02-865787-5\").\n*   Carroll, No\u00ebl (2006). \"Art, Truth in\". In Borchert, Donald (ed.). [_Encyclopedia of Philosophy_](https://www.encyclopedia.com/humanities/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/art-truth). Vol.1 (2nd ed.). Macmillan. pp.333\u2013337. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) \"ISBN (identifier)\")[978-0-02-865790-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-02-865790-5 \"Special:BookSources/978-0-02-865790-5\").\n*   Connolly, Tim (2011). \"Perspectivism as a Way of Knowing in the Zhuangzi\". _Dao_. **10** (4): 487\u2013505. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier) \"Doi (identifier)\"):[10.1007/s11712-011-9246-x](https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11712-011-9246-x).\n*   Cooper, David E. (2005). \"Truth and Truthfulness\". In Honderich, Ted (ed.). _The Oxford Companion to Philosophy_. Oxford University Press. pp.927\u2013928. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) \"ISBN (identifier)\")[978-0-19-926479-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-926479-7 \"Special:BookSources/978-0-19-926479-7\").\n*   Cresswell, M. J. (2007). [_Language in the World: A Philosophical Enquiry_](https://books.google.com/books?id=QOGO-sab1PIC&pg=PA113). Cambridge University Press. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) \"ISBN (identifier)\")[978-0-521-04621-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-04621-3 \"Special:BookSources/978-0-521-04621-3\").\n*   Crumley II, Jack S. (2009). [_An Introduction to Epistemology_](https://books.google.com/books?id=62gYgpeVT28C) (2 ed.). Broadview Press. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) \"ISBN (identifier)\")[978-1-77048-156-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-77048-156-5 \"Special:BookSources/978-1-77048-156-5\").\n*   CUP staff (2026). [\"Post-truth\"](https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/post-truth). _Cambridge Dictionary_. Cambridge University Press. Retrieved 2 February 2026.\n*   Cunningham, D. J. (2009). [\"Meaning, Sense, and Reference\"](https://books.google.com/books?id=3_1snsgmqU8C). In Allan, Keith (ed.). _Concise Encyclopedia of Semantics_. Elsevier. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) \"ISBN (identifier)\")[978-0-080-95969-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-080-95969-6 \"Special:BookSources/978-0-080-95969-6\"). Retrieved 4 February 2024.\n*   Currie, Gregory (1986). \"Fictional truth\". _Philosophical Studies_. **50** (2): 195\u2013212. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier) \"Doi (identifier)\"):[10.1007/bf00354588](https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fbf00354588).\n*   Dahlstrom, Daniel O. (2001). [_Heidegger's Concept of Truth_](https://books.google.com/books?id=2l7M6YHn9VoC&pg=PA34). Cambridge University Press. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) \"ISBN (identifier)\")[978-0-521-64317-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-64317-7 \"Special:BookSources/978-0-521-64317-7\").\n*   David, Marian (2018). \"9. The Correspondence Theory of Truth\". In Glanzberg, Michael (ed.). _The Oxford Handbook of Truth_. Oxford University Press. pp.238\u2013258. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) \"ISBN (identifier)\")[978-0-19-174977-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-174977-3 \"Special:BookSources/978-0-19-174977-3\").\n*   David, Marian (2025). [\"The Correspondence Theory of Truth\"](https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/truth-correspondence/). _The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy_. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Retrieved 26 January 2026.\n*   De Mijolla-Mellor, Sophie (2005). \"Historical Truth\". In De Mijolla, Alain (ed.). _International Dictionary of Psychoanalysis_. pp.749\u2013750. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) \"ISBN (identifier)\")[978-0-02-865994-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-02-865994-7 \"Special:BookSources/978-0-02-865994-7\").\n*   DeBonis, Mark J. (2025). [_A Beginner's Guide to Mathematical Proof_](https://books.google.com/books?id=RYdBEQAAQBAJ&pg=PA17). CRC Press. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) \"ISBN (identifier)\")[978-1-040-32705-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-040-32705-0 \"Special:BookSources/978-1-040-32705-0\").\n*   DeLapp, Kevin M. [\"Metaethics\"](https://iep.utm.edu/metaethi/). _Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy_. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20240123102700/https://iep.utm.edu/metaethi/) from the original on 23 January 2024. Retrieved 19 December 2023.\n*   Dentsoras, Dimitrios (2022). \"4. Ancient Theories of Propositions\". In Tillman, Chris; Murray, Adam (eds.). _The Routledge Handbook of Propositions_ (1st ed.). Routledge. pp.103\u2013114. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier) \"Doi (identifier)\"):[10.4324/9781315270500-7](https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9781315270500-7). [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) \"ISBN (identifier)\")[978-1-315-27050-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-315-27050-0 \"Special:BookSources/978-1-315-27050-0\").\n*   Deutsch, Harry (2022). \"33. Propositional Paradox\". In Tillman, Chris; Murray, Adam (eds.). _The Routledge Handbook of Propositions_ (1st ed.). Routledge. pp.533\u2013545. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier) \"Doi (identifier)\"):[10.4324/9781315270500-37](https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9781315270500-37). [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) \"ISBN (identifier)\")[978-1-315-27050-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-315-27050-0 \"Special:BookSources/978-1-315-27050-0\").\n*   Dhamani, Numa (2026). [_Introduction to Generative AI: Reliable, responsible, and real-world applications_](https://books.google.com/books?id=VayEEQAAQBAJ&pg=PA163) (2nd ed.). Manning Publications. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) \"ISBN (identifier)\")[978-1-63835-776-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-63835-776-6 \"Special:BookSources/978-1-63835-776-6\").\n*   DK staff (2018). [_Timelines of Everything: From Woolly Mammoths to World Wars_](https://books.google.com/books?id=8rqpDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA76). Dorling Kindersley Limited. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) \"ISBN (identifier)\")[978-0-241-42807-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-241-42807-8 \"Special:BookSources/978-0-241-42807-8\").\n*   Dowden, Bradley; Swartz, Norman. [\"Truth\"](https://iep.utm.edu/truth/). _Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy_. Retrieved 12 January 2026.\n*   Dupre, Louis (1964). \"The Concept of Truth in Husserl's\". _Philosophy and Phenomenological Research_. **24** (3): 345\u2013354. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier) \"Doi (identifier)\"):[10.2307/2104810](https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2104810).\n*   Dynel, Marta (2018). [_Irony, Deception and Humour: Seeking the Truth about Overt and Covert Untruthfulness_](https://books.google.com/books?id=CZFdDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA236). Walter de Gruyter. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) \"ISBN (identifier)\")[978-1-5015-0792-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-5015-0792-2 \"Special:BookSources/978-1-5015-0792-2\").\n*   Eberle, Rolf A. (1984). \"Logic with a Relative Truth Predicate and 'that'-Terms\". _Synthese_. **59** (2): 151\u2013185. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier) \"Doi (identifier)\"):[10.1007/bf00869416](https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fbf00869416).\n*   Engel, Pascal (2002). _Truth_. Acumen. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) \"ISBN (identifier)\")[978-0-7735-2461-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7735-2461-3 \"Special:BookSources/978-0-7735-2461-3\").\n*   Fei, Duoyi (2023). [_Beyond the Brain: How the Mind and the Body Shape Each Other_](https://books.google.com/books?id=Ot6uEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA79). Springer Nature Singapore. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) \"ISBN (identifier)\")[978-981-19-9558-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-981-19-9558-3 \"Special:BookSources/978-981-19-9558-3\").\n*   [Field, Hartry](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hartry_Field \"Hartry Field\") (2008). [_Saving Truth From Paradox_](https://books.google.com/books?id=7KASDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1). Oxford University Press. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) \"ISBN (identifier)\")[978-0-19-923075-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-923075-4 \"Special:BookSources/978-0-19-923075-4\").\n*   Fraser, Chris (2020). \"Truth in Pre-Han Thought\". In Fung, Yiu-ming (ed.). _Dao Companion to Chinese Philosophy of Logic_. Springer Nature. pp.113\u2013128. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) \"ISBN (identifier)\")[978-3-030-29033-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-030-29033-7 \"Special:BookSources/978-3-030-29033-7\").\n*   Fraser, Chris (2024). [\"Mohism\"](https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/mohism/). _The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy_. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Retrieved 28 November 2025.\n*   Fujimoto, Kentaro; Halbach, Volker (2018). \"27. The Axiomatic Approach to Truth\". In Glanzberg, Michael (ed.). _The Oxford Handbook of Truth_. Oxford University Press. pp.718\u2013738. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) \"ISBN (identifier)\")[978-0-19-174977-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-174977-3 \"Special:BookSources/978-0-19-174977-3\").\n*   Garson, James (2024). [\"Modal Logic\"](https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-modal/). _The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy_. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Retrieved 13 January 2026.\n*   Gaskin, Richard (2021). [\"The Identity Theory of Truth\"](https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/truth-identity/). _The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy_. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Retrieved 23 January 2026.\n*   Girifalco, Louis (2007). \"23. Scientific truth\". _The Universal Force: Gravity\u2013Creator of Worlds_. Oxford University Press. pp.267\u2013275. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) \"ISBN (identifier)\")[978-0-19-152797-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-152797-5 \"Special:BookSources/978-0-19-152797-5\").\n*   Glanzberg, Michael (2018). \"Introduction\". In Glanzberg, Michael (ed.). [_The Oxford Handbook of Truth_](https://academic.oup.com/edited-volume/41343/chapter-abstract/352423103?redirectedFrom=fulltext). Oxford University Press. pp.1\u20136. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) \"ISBN (identifier)\")[978-0-19-174977-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-174977-3 \"Special:BookSources/978-0-19-174977-3\").\n*   Glanzberg, Michael (2025). [\"Truth\"](https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/truth/). _The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy_. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Retrieved 12 January 2026.\n*   Goldman, Alvin; Bender, John (2005). \"Justification, Epistemic\". In Honderich, Ted (ed.). _The Oxford Companion to Philosophy_. Oxford University Press. p.465. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) \"ISBN (identifier)\")[978-0-19-926479-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-926479-7 \"Special:BookSources/978-0-19-926479-7\").\n*   Goldstein, Tom (2007). [_Journalism and Truth: Strange Bedfellows_](https://books.google.com/books?id=ha6i7TTKCtsC&pg=PA1). Northwestern University Press. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) \"ISBN (identifier)\")[978-0-8101-2433-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8101-2433-2 \"Special:BookSources/978-0-8101-2433-2\").\n*   G\u00f3mez-Torrente, Mario (2022). [\"Logical Truth\"](https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logical-truth/). _The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy_. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Retrieved 25 November 2025.\n*   Green, Richard Firth (2002). [_A Crisis of Truth: Literature and Law in Ricardian England_](https://books.google.com/books?id=3FoYjBICoU8C&pg=PA21). University of Pennsylvania Press. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) \"ISBN (identifier)\")[978-0-8122-1809-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-1809-1 \"Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-1809-1\").\n*   Gr\u00f8n, Arne (2003). \"Truth, Theories Of\". In Van Huyssteen, J. Wentzel Vrede (ed.). _Encyclopedia Of Science And Religion_. Macmillan. pp.901\u2013904.\n*   Gutting, Gary; Oksala, Johanna (2025). [\"Michel Foucault\"](https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/foucault/). _The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy_. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Retrieved 31 January 2026.\n*   Haecker, Dorothy (1985). \"A Theory of Historical Truth:\". _Philosophical Topics_. **13** (2): 267\u2013275. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier) \"Doi (identifier)\"):[10.5840/philtopics198513240](https://doi.org/10.5840%2Fphiltopics198513240).\n*   Halbach, Volker; Leigh, Graham E.; \u0141e\u0142yk, Mateusz (2025). [\"Axiomatic Theories of Truth\"](https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/truth-axiomatic/). _The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy_. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Retrieved 25 January 2026.\n*   Hatfield, Gary (1998). \"Scientific Method\". _Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy_. Routledge. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier) \"Doi (identifier)\"):[10.4324/9780415249126-Q093-1](https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9780415249126-Q093-1). [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) \"ISBN (identifier)\")[978-0-415-25069-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-25069-6 \"Special:BookSources/978-0-415-25069-6\").\n*   Heck, Richard G.; May, Robert (2018). \"7. Truth in Frege\". In Glanzberg, Michael (ed.). _The Oxford Handbook of Truth_. Oxford University Press. pp.193\u2013216. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) \"ISBN (identifier)\")[978-0-19-174977-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-174977-3 \"Special:BookSources/978-0-19-174977-3\").\n*   Henderson, Harry (2009). [_Encyclopedia of Computer Science and Technology_](https://books.google.com/books?id=3Tla6d153uwC&pg=PA53). Infobase Publishing. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) \"ISBN (identifier)\")[978-1-4381-1003-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4381-1003-5 \"Special:BookSources/978-1-4381-1003-5\").\n*   Hesse, Mary (1978). \"Habermas' Consensus Theory of Truth\". _PSA: Proceedings of the Biennial Meeting of the Philosophy of Science Association_. **1978** (2): 372\u2013396. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier) \"Doi (identifier)\"):[10.1086/PSAPROCBIENMEETP.1978.2.192479](https://doi.org/10.1086%2FPSAPROCBIENMEETP.1978.2.192479).\n*   Hetherington, Stephen. [\"Knowledge\"](https://iep.utm.edu/knowledg/). _[Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet\\_Encyclopedia\\_of\\_Philosophy \"Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy\")_. Retrieved 18 May 2022.\n*   Hickerson, Andrea; Schwartz, Christopher; Wright, Matthew (2025). [_Fake-Checking: A Journalist\u2019s Guide to Deepfakes_](https://books.google.com/books?id=Vk6dEQAAQBAJ&pg=PT122). Taylor & Francis. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) \"ISBN (identifier)\")[978-1-040-63729-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-040-63729-6 \"Special:BookSources/978-1-040-63729-6\").\n*   Hill, Lisa; Blazejak, Eden (2021). [_Stoicism and the Western Political Tradition_](https://books.google.com/books?id=UQE5EAAAQBAJ&pg=PA4). Springer Nature. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) \"ISBN (identifier)\")[978-981-16-2742-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-981-16-2742-2 \"Special:BookSources/978-981-16-2742-2\").\n*   [Hintikka, Jaakko J.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jaakko_Hintikka \"Jaakko Hintikka\") (2019). [\"Philosophy of Logic\"](https://www.britannica.com/topic/philosophy-of-logic). _Encyclop\u00e6dia Britannica_. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20150428101732/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/346240/philosophy-of-logic) from the original on 28 April 2015. Retrieved 21 November 2021.\n*   Horsten, Leon (2023). [\"Philosophy of Mathematics\"](https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/philosophy-mathematics/). _The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy_. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Retrieved 14 January 2026.\n*   Howell, Kerry E. (2013). _An Introduction to the Philosophy of Methodology_. SAGE. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) \"ISBN (identifier)\")[978-1-4462-9062-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4462-9062-0 \"Special:BookSources/978-1-4462-9062-0\").\n*   Ichikawa, Jonathan Jenkins; Steup, Matthias (2018). [\"The Analysis of Knowledge\"](https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/knowledge-analysis/). _The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy_. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20220502031402/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/knowledge-analysis/) from the original on 2 May 2022. Retrieved 29 March 2023.\n*   James, Simon (2005). \"Fuzzy Logic\". In Honderich, Ted (ed.). _The Oxford Companion to Philosophy_. Oxford University Press. p.326. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) \"ISBN (identifier)\")[978-0-19-926479-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-926479-7 \"Special:BookSources/978-0-19-926479-7\").\n*   Johnson, David Kyle (2011). \"Wikiality, Truthiness, and Gut Thinking Doing Philosophy Colbert-Style\". In Irwin, William; Johnson, David Kyle (eds.). _Introducing Philosophy Through Pop Culture: From Socrates to South Park, Hume to House_. John Wiley & Sons. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) \"ISBN (identifier)\")[978-1-4443-9098-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4443-9098-8 \"Special:BookSources/978-1-4443-9098-8\").\n*   Jones, Constance A.; Ryan, James D. (2007). _Encyclopedia Of Hinduism_. Infobase Publishing. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) \"ISBN (identifier)\")[978-0-8160-5458-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8160-5458-9 \"Special:BookSources/978-0-8160-5458-9\").\n*   Juhl, Cory; Loomis, Eric (2009). [_Analyticity_](https://books.google.com/books?id=8kiPAgAAQBAJ&pg=PR9). Routledge. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) \"ISBN (identifier)\")[978-1-135-27841-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-135-27841-0 \"Special:BookSources/978-1-135-27841-0\").\n*   Kasim, Azilah (2006). \"Application of Qualitative Research Design in Tourism Research\". In Kasim, Azilah; Dzakiria, Hisham (eds.). [_Applying Qualitative Design in Research: Learning by Doing_](https://books.google.com/books?id=9-TqIjCDp6YC&pg=PA30). UUM Press. pp.27\u201380. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) \"ISBN (identifier)\")[978-983-3282-53-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-983-3282-53-1 \"Special:BookSources/978-983-3282-53-1\").\n*   Kearns, Kate (2011). _Semantics_. Palgrave Macmillan. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) \"ISBN (identifier)\")[978-0-333-71701-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-333-71701-1 \"Special:BookSources/978-0-333-71701-1\").\n*   Kirkham, Richard L. (1998). \"Truth, Correspondence Theory of\". _Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy_. Routledge. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier) \"Doi (identifier)\"):[10.4324/9780415249126-N064-1](https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9780415249126-N064-1). [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) \"ISBN (identifier)\")[978-0-415-25069-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-25069-6 \"Special:BookSources/978-0-415-25069-6\").\n*   Koons, Robert C.; Pickavance, Timothy H. (2015). _Metaphysics: The Fundamentals_ (1st ed.). Wiley-Blackwell. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) \"ISBN (identifier)\")[978-1-4051-9574-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-9574-4 \"Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-9574-4\").\n*   Kozma, Melissa M.; Schroer, Jeanine Weekes (2014). \"Purposeful Nonsense, Intersectionality and the Mission to Save Black Babies\". In Goswami, Namita; O'Donovan, Maeve M.; Yount, Lisa (eds.). [_Why Race and Gender Still Matter: An Intersectional Approach_](https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/why-race-and-gender-still-matter/purposeful-nonsense-intersectionality-and-the-mission-to-save-black-babies/56F01FF11E45A92D19FD8DD2E450B34F). Pickering & Chatto. pp.101\u2013116. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) \"ISBN (identifier)\")[978-1-84893-451-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84893-451-1 \"Special:BookSources/978-1-84893-451-1\").\n*   Lawson, Gary (2017). [_Evidence of the Law: Proving Legal Claims_](https://books.google.com/books?id=tZUtDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1). University of Chicago Press. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) \"ISBN (identifier)\")[978-0-226-43205-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-43205-2 \"Special:BookSources/978-0-226-43205-2\").\n*   Lizzini, Olga L. (2023). \"Ontology and Logic in Avicenna's Concept of Truth\". In Krause, Katja; L\u00f3pez-Farjeat, Luis Xavier; Oschman, Nicholas A. (eds.). _Contextualizing Premodern Philosophy_ (1st ed.). Routledge. pp.246\u2013275. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier) \"Doi (identifier)\"):[10.4324/9781003309895-13](https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9781003309895-13). [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) \"ISBN (identifier)\")[978-1-003-30989-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-003-30989-5 \"Special:BookSources/978-1-003-30989-5\").\n*   Loux, Michael J.; Crisp, Thomas M. (2017). _Metaphysics: A Contemporary Introduction_ (4th ed.). Routledge. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) \"ISBN (identifier)\")[978-1-138-63933-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-138-63933-1 \"Special:BookSources/978-1-138-63933-1\").\n*   L\u00f6we, Benedikt (2002). \"The Formal Sciences: Their Scope, Their Foundations, and Their Unity\". _Synthese_. **133** (1\u20132): 5\u201311. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier) \"Doi (identifier)\"):[10.1023/A:1020887832028](https://doi.org/10.1023%2FA%3A1020887832028).\n*   Lowe, E. J. (2005). \"Truth\". In Honderich, Ted (ed.). _The Oxford Companion to Philosophy_. Oxford University Press. pp.926\u2013927. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) \"ISBN (identifier)\")[978-0-19-926479-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-926479-7 \"Special:BookSources/978-0-19-926479-7\").\n*   Lynch, Michael P. (2001). [_The Nature of Truth: Classic and Contemporary Perspectives_](https://books.google.com/books?id=zXzEP1SgMz8C&pg=PA1). MIT Press. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) \"ISBN (identifier)\")[978-0-262-62145-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-262-62145-8 \"Special:BookSources/978-0-262-62145-8\").\n*   Lynch, Michael P. (2004). _True to Life: Why Truth Matters_. MIT Press. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) \"ISBN (identifier)\")[978-0-262-27870-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-262-27870-6 \"Special:BookSources/978-0-262-27870-6\").\n*   Lynch, M. P. (2005). \"Alethic Functionalism and Our Folk Theory of Truth\". _Synthese_. **145** (1): 29\u201343. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier) \"Doi (identifier)\"):[10.1007/s11229-004-1771-2](https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11229-004-1771-2).\n*   Lyon, Ardon (2005). \"Objectivism and Subjectivism\". In Honderich, Ted (ed.). _The Oxford Companion to Philosophy_. Oxford University Press. p.667. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) \"ISBN (identifier)\")[978-0-19-926479-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-926479-7 \"Special:BookSources/978-0-19-926479-7\").\n*   MacBride, Fraser; Daly, Christopher (2025). [\"Truthmakers\"](https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/truthmakers/). _The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy_. 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[ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) \"ISBN (identifier)\")[978-1-118-14896-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-118-14896-9 \"Special:BookSources/978-1-118-14896-9\").\n*   Mcdowell, John (1982). \"Truth-Value Gaps\". _Studies in Logic and the Foundations of Mathematics_. **104**: 299\u2013313. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier) \"Doi (identifier)\"):[10.1016/S0049-237X(09)70201-0](https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0049-237X%2809%2970201-0).\n*   McGrath, Matthew; Frank, Devin (2024). [\"Propositions\"](https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/propositions/). _The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy_. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Retrieved 7 November 2025.\n*   Mertens, Thomas (2016). \"On Kant's Duty to Speak the Truth\". _Kantian Review_. **21** (1): 27\u201351. 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In Cappelen, Herman; Gendler, Tamar Szab\u00f3; Hawthorne, John (eds.). _The Oxford Handbook of Philosophical Methodology_ (1st ed.). Oxford University Press. pp.231\u2013248. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier) \"Doi (identifier)\"):[10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199668779.013.24](https://doi.org/10.1093%2Foxfordhb%2F9780199668779.013.24). [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) \"ISBN (identifier)\")[978-0-19-966877-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-966877-9 \"Special:BookSources/978-0-19-966877-9\").\n*   Whitehouse, Ruth (1983). [_Macmillan Dictionary of Archaeology_](https://books.google.com/books?id=jrexCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA430). Palgrave Macmillan. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) \"ISBN (identifier)\")[978-1-349-04874-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-349-04874-8 \"Special:BookSources/978-1-349-04874-8\").\n*   Wider, Kathleen (1995). \"Truth and Existence: The Idealism in Sartre's Theory of Truth\". _International Journal of Philosophical Studies_. **3** (1): 91\u2013109. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier) \"Doi (identifier)\"):[10.1080/09672559508570805](https://doi.org/10.1080%2F09672559508570805).\n*   Williams, Stephen G. (1998). \"Meaning and Truth\". _Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy_. Routledge. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier) \"Doi (identifier)\"):[10.4324/9780415249126-X024-1](https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9780415249126-X024-1). [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) \"ISBN (identifier)\")[978-0-415-25069-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-25069-6 \"Special:BookSources/978-0-415-25069-6\").\n*   Winter, Yoad (2016). [_Elements of Formal Semantics: An Introduction to the Mathematical Theory of Meaning in Natural Language_](https://books.google.com/books?id=aDRWDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1). Edinburgh University Press. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) \"ISBN (identifier)\")[978-0-7486-7777-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7486-7777-1 \"Special:BookSources/978-0-7486-7777-1\").\n*   [Wolenski, Jan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jan_Wolenski \"Jan Wolenski\") (2004). [\"History of Epistemology\"](https://books.google.com/books?id=6gvlBwAAQBAJ). In Niiniluoto, I.; Sintonen, Matti; Wolenski, Jan (eds.). _Handbook of Epistemology_. Springer. pp.3\u201356. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier) \"Doi (identifier)\"):[10.1007/978-1-4020-1986-9_1](https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-4020-1986-9_1). [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) \"ISBN (identifier)\")[978-1-4020-1986-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-1986-9 \"Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-1986-9\").\n*   Wole\u0144ski, Jan (2004). \"Aletheia in Greek thought until Aristotle\". _Annals of Pure and Applied Logic_. **127** (1\u20133): 339\u2013360. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier) \"Doi (identifier)\"):[10.1016/j.apal.2003.11.020](https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.apal.2003.11.020).\n*   Wrathall, Mark (2025). [\"Martin Heidegger\"](https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/heidegger/). _The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy_. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Retrieved 30 January 2026.\n*   Young, James O. (1986). \"Relatively Speaking: The Coherence of Anti-Realist Relativism\". _Canadian Journal of Philosophy_. **16** (3): 503\u2013509. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier) \"Doi (identifier)\"):[10.1080/00455091.1986.10717132](https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00455091.1986.10717132).\n*   Young, James O. (1996). \"Relativism and Anti-realism\". _Ratio_. **9** (1): 68\u201377. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier) \"Doi (identifier)\"):[10.1111/j.1467-9329.1996.tb00094.x](https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1467-9329.1996.tb00094.x).\n*   Zangwill, Nick (2024). [\"Aesthetic Judgment\"](https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aesthetic-judgment/). _The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy_. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Retrieved 15 January 2026.\n*   Zhang, Erique; Billard, Thomas J. (2025). \"Queer and Transgender Media Studies\". In Ramasubramanian, Srividya; Banjo, Omotayo O. (eds.). [_The Oxford Handbook of Media and Social Justice_](https://books.google.com/books?id=JccdEQAAQBAJ&pg=PA84). Oxford University Press. pp.78\u201386. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) \"ISBN (identifier)\")[978-0-19-774436-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-774436-9 \"Special:BookSources/978-0-19-774436-9\").\n\n## External links\n\n[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Truth&action=edit&section=26 \"Edit section: External links\")]\n\n![Image 27](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/40px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png)\n\nWikiquote has quotations related to _**[Truth](https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Truth \"q:Special:Search/Truth\")**_.\n\n[![Image 28: Wiktionary logo](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/40px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg)\n\nLook up _**[truth](https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/truth \"wiktionary:truth\")**_ in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.\n\n[![Image 29: Wikimedia Commons logo](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/40px-Commons-logo.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg)\n\nWikimedia Commons has media related to [Truth](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Truth \"commons:Category:Truth\").\n\n| * [v](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Theories_of_truth \"Template:Theories of truth\") * [t](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Theories_of_truth \"Template talk:Theories of truth\") * [e](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Theories_of_truth \"Special:EditPage/Template:Theories of truth\") [Truth](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth) |\n| --- |\n| General | * [Statement](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statement_(logic) \"Statement (logic)\") * [Propositions](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proposition \"Proposition\") * [Truth-bearer](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth-bearer \"Truth-bearer\") * [Truth-maker](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truthmaker_theory \"Truthmaker theory\") |\n| Theories | * [Coherence](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coherence_theory_of_truth \"Coherence theory of truth\") * [Consensus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consensus_theory_of_truth \"Consensus theory of truth\") * [Constructivist](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constructivist_epistemology \"Constructivist epistemology\") * [Correspondence](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Correspondence_theory_of_truth \"Correspondence theory of truth\") * [Deflationary](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deflationary_theory_of_truth \"Deflationary theory of truth\") * [Epistemic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistemic_theories_of_truth \"Epistemic theories of truth\") * [Pluralist](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluralist_theories_of_truth \"Pluralist theories of truth\") * [Pragmatic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pragmatic_theory_of_truth \"Pragmatic theory of truth\") * [Redundancy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Redundancy_theory_of_truth \"Redundancy theory of truth\") * [Semantic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semantic_theory_of_truth \"Semantic theory of truth\") |\n\n| Links to related articles |\n| --- |\n| | * [v](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Metaphysics \"Template:Metaphysics\") * [t](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Metaphysics \"Template talk:Metaphysics\") * [e](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Metaphysics \"Special:EditPage/Template:Metaphysics\") [Metaphysics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metaphysics \"Metaphysics\") | | --- | | Theories | * [Abstract object theory](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abstract_object_theory \"Abstract object theory\") * [Action theory](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Action_theory_(philosophy) \"Action theory (philosophy)\") * [Anti-realism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-realism \"Anti-realism\") * [Determinism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Determinism \"Determinism\") * [Dualism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism \"Mind\u2013body dualism\") * [Enactivism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enactivism \"Enactivism\") * [Essentialism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Essentialism \"Essentialism\") * [Existentialism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Existentialism \"Existentialism\") * [Free will](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_will \"Free will\") * [Idealism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idealism \"Idealism\") * [Libertarianism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Libertarianism_(metaphysics) \"Libertarianism (metaphysics)\") * [Liberty](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberty \"Liberty\") * [Materialism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materialism \"Materialism\") * [Meaning of life](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life \"Meaning of life\") * [Monism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monism \"Monism\") * [Naturalism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy) \"Naturalism (philosophy)\") * [Nihilism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nihilism \"Nihilism\") * [Phenomenalism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phenomenalism \"Phenomenalism\") * [Physicalism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physicalism \"Physicalism\") * [Realism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophical_realism \"Philosophical realism\") * [Relativism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relativism \"Relativism\") * [Scientific realism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_realism \"Scientific realism\") * [Solipsism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solipsism \"Solipsism\") * [Spiritualism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spiritualism_(philosophy) \"Spiritualism (philosophy)\") * [Subjectivism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subjectivism \"Subjectivism\") * [Substance theory](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Substance_theory \"Substance theory\") * [Theory of forms](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_forms \"Theory of forms\") * [Truthmaker theory](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truthmaker_theory \"Truthmaker theory\") * [Type theory](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Type_theory \"Type theory\") | | Concepts | * [Abstract object](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abstract_and_concrete \"Abstract and concrete\") * [Anima mundi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anima_mundi \"Anima mundi\") * [Category of being](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category_of_being \"Category of being\") * [Causality](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Causality \"Causality\") * [Causal closure](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Causal_closure \"Causal closure\") * _[Cogito, ergo sum](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cogito,\\_ergo\\_sum \"Cogito, ergo sum\")_ * [Concept](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concept \"Concept\") * [Cosmos](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmos \"Cosmos\") * [Embodied cognition](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embodied_cognition \"Embodied cognition\") * [Entity](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entity \"Entity\") * [Essence](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Essence \"Essence\") * [Existence](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Existence \"Existence\") * [Experience](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experience \"Experience\") * [Hypostatic abstraction](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypostatic_abstraction \"Hypostatic abstraction\") * [Idea](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idea \"Idea\") * [Identity](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Identity_(philosophy) \"Identity (philosophy)\") * [Importance](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Importance \"Importance\") * [Information](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information \"Information\") * [Data](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data \"Data\") * [Insight](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insight \"Insight\") * [Intelligence](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligence \"Intelligence\") * [Intention](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intention \"Intention\") * [Linguistic modality](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistic_modality \"Linguistic modality\") * [Matter](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_matter \"Philosophy of matter\") * [Meaning](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_(existential) \"Meaning (existential)\") * [Mental representation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mental_representation \"Mental representation\") * [Mind](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mind \"Mind\") * [Motion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motion \"Motion\") * [Nature](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nature_(philosophy) \"Nature (philosophy)\") * [Necessity](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metaphysical_necessity \"Metaphysical necessity\") * [Object](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subject_and_object_(philosophy) \"Subject and object (philosophy)\") * [Ontology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ontology \"Ontology\") * [Pattern](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pattern \"Pattern\") * [Perception](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perception \"Perception\") * [Physical object](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_object \"Physical object\") * [Principle](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principle \"Principle\") * [Property](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Property_(philosophy) \"Property (philosophy)\") * [Qualia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qualia \"Qualia\") * [Quality](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quality_(philosophy) \"Quality (philosophy)\") * [Reality](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reality \"Reality\") * [Relation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relations_(philosophy) \"Relations (philosophy)\") * [Self](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self \"Self\") * [Soul](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soul \"Soul\") * [Subject](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subject_and_object_(philosophy) \"Subject and object (philosophy)\") * [Substantial form](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Substantial_form \"Substantial form\") * [Thought](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thought \"Thought\") * [Time](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time \"Time\") * [Truth](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth) * [Type\u2013token distinction](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Type%E2%80%93token_distinction \"Type\u2013token distinction\") * [Universal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_(metaphysics) \"Universal (metaphysics)\") * [Unobservable](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unobservable \"Unobservable\") * [Value](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Value_(ethics) \"Value (ethics)\") | | [Metaphysicians](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_metaphysicians \"List of metaphysicians\") | * [Anscombe](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G._E._M._Anscombe \"G. E. M. Anscombe\") * [Aquinas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas \"Thomas Aquinas\") * [Aristotle](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotle \"Aristotle\") * [Armstrong](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Malet_Armstrong \"David Malet Armstrong\") * [Averroes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Averroes \"Averroes\") * [Avicenna](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avicenna \"Avicenna\") * [Baudrillard](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Baudrillard \"Jean Baudrillard\") * [Bergson](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri_Bergson \"Henri Bergson\") * [Berkeley](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Berkeley \"George Berkeley\") * [Boethius](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boethius \"Boethius\") * [Bolzano](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernard_Bolzano \"Bernard Bolzano\") * [Carnap](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudolf_Carnap \"Rudolf Carnap\") * [Collingwood](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R._G._Collingwood \"R. G. Collingwood\") * [Davidson](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donald_Davidson_(philosopher) \"Donald Davidson (philosopher)\") * [Deleuze](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gilles_Deleuze \"Gilles Deleuze\") * [Descartes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes \"Ren\u00e9 Descartes\") * [Dummett](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Dummett \"Michael Dummett\") * [Al-Ghazali](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Ghazali \"Al-Ghazali\") * [Hegel](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel \"Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel\") * [Heidegger](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Heidegger \"Martin Heidegger\") * [Hume](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Hume \"David Hume\") * [Kant](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant \"Immanuel Kant\") * [Kierkegaard](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard \"S\u00f8ren Kierkegaard\") * [Al-Kindi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Kindi \"Al-Kindi\") * [Kripke](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saul_Kripke \"Saul Kripke\") * [Laozi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laozi \"Laozi\") * [Leibniz](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz \"Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz\") * [Lewis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Lewis_(philosopher) \"David Lewis (philosopher)\") * [Locke](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Locke \"John Locke\") * [Lotze](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermann_Lotze \"Hermann Lotze\") * [Lucretius](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucretius \"Lucretius\") * [Malebranche](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicolas_Malebranche \"Nicolas Malebranche\") * [Meinong](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexius_Meinong \"Alexius Meinong\") * [Moore](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G._E._Moore \"G. E. Moore\") * [Mozi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mozi \"Mozi\") * [Newton](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton \"Isaac Newton\") * [Nietzsche](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche \"Friedrich Nietzsche\") * [Parfit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Derek_Parfit \"Derek Parfit\") * [Parmenides](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parmenides \"Parmenides\") * [Peirce](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Sanders_Peirce \"Charles Sanders Peirce\") * [Plantinga](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alvin_Plantinga \"Alvin Plantinga\") * [Plato](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plato \"Plato\") * [Plotinus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plotinus \"Plotinus\") * [Proclus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proclus \"Proclus\") * [Putnam](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hilary_Putnam \"Hilary Putnam\") * [Quine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine \"Willard Van Orman Quine\") * [Reid](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Reid \"Thomas Reid\") * [Russell](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertrand_Russell \"Bertrand Russell\") * [Ryle](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gilbert_Ryle \"Gilbert Ryle\") * [Sartre](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Paul_Sartre \"Jean-Paul Sartre\") * [Schopenhauer](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_Schopenhauer \"Arthur Schopenhauer\") * [Scotus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duns_Scotus \"Duns Scotus\") * [Spinoza](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza \"Baruch Spinoza\") * [Strawson](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P._F._Strawson \"P. F. Strawson\") * [Su\u00e1rez](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francisco_Su%C3%A1rez \"Francisco Su\u00e1rez\") * [Whitehead](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_North_Whitehead \"Alfred North Whitehead\") * [Wittgenstein](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein \"Ludwig Wittgenstein\") * [Wolff](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_Wolff_(philosopher) \"Christian Wolff (philosopher)\") * _[more ...](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List\\_of\\_metaphysicians \"List of metaphysicians\")_ | | Notable works | * _[Sophist](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sophist\\_(dialogue) \"Sophist (dialogue)\")_(c. 350 BC) * _[Timaeus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timaeus\\_(dialogue) \"Timaeus (dialogue)\")_(c. 350 BC) * _[Ny\u0101ya S\u016btras](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ny%C4%81ya\\_S%C5%ABtras \"Ny\u0101ya S\u016btras\")_(c. 200 BC) * _[De rerum natura](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De\\_rerum\\_natura \"De rerum natura\")_(c. 80 BC) * _[Metaphysics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metaphysics\\_(Aristotle) \"Metaphysics (Aristotle)\")_(c. 50) * _[Enneads](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enneads \"Enneads\")_(c. 270) * _[Daneshnameh-ye Alai](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daneshnameh-ye\\_Alai \"Daneshnameh-ye Alai\")_ and _[Al-Nijat](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Nijat \"Al-Nijat\")_(c. 1000) * _[Meditations on First Philosophy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meditations\\_on\\_First\\_Philosophy \"Meditations on First Philosophy\")_(1641) * _[Ethics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics\\_(Spinoza\\_book) \"Ethics (Spinoza book)\")_(1677) * _[A Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A\\_Treatise\\_Concerning\\_the\\_Principles\\_of\\_Human\\_Knowledge \"A Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge\")_(1710) * _[Monadology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monadology \"Monadology\")_(1714) * _[Critique of Pure Reason](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critique\\_of\\_Pure\\_Reason \"Critique of Pure Reason\")_(1781) * _[Prolegomena to Any Future Metaphysics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prolegomena\\_to\\_Any\\_Future\\_Metaphysics \"Prolegomena to Any Future Metaphysics\")_(1783) * _[The Phenomenology of Spirit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The\\_Phenomenology\\_of\\_Spirit \"The Phenomenology of Spirit\")_(1807) * _[The World as Will and Representation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The\\_World\\_as\\_Will\\_and\\_Representation \"The World as Will and Representation\")_(1818) * _[Concluding Unscientific Postscript to Philosophical Fragments](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concluding\\_Unscientific\\_Postscript\\_to\\_Philosophical\\_Fragments \"Concluding Unscientific Postscript to Philosophical Fragments\")_(1846) * _[Being and Time](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Being\\_and\\_Time \"Being and Time\")_(1927) * _[Being and Nothingness](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Being\\_and\\_Nothingness \"Being and Nothingness\")_(1943) * _[Simulacra and Simulation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simulacra\\_and\\_Simulation \"Simulacra and Simulation\")_(1981) | | Related topics | * [Axiology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axiology \"Axiology\") * [Cosmology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmology \"Cosmology\") * [Epistemology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistemology \"Epistemology\") * [Feminist metaphysics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feminist_metaphysics \"Feminist metaphysics\") * [Interpretations of quantum mechanics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interpretations_of_quantum_mechanics \"Interpretations of quantum mechanics\") * [Mereology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mereology \"Mereology\") * [Meta-](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meta_(prefix) \"Meta (prefix)\") * [Phenomenology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy) \"Phenomenology (philosophy)\") * [Philosophy of mind](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind \"Philosophy of mind\") * [Philosophy of psychology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_psychology \"Philosophy of psychology\") * [Philosophy of self](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_self \"Philosophy of self\") * [Philosophy of space and time](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_space_and_time \"Philosophy of space and time\") * [Teleology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teleology \"Teleology\") | | * ![Image 30](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/20px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png)[Category](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Metaphysics \"Category:Metaphysics\") * ![Image 31](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/20px-Socrates.png)[Philosophy portal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Philosophy \"Portal:Philosophy\") | | * [v](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Epistemology \"Template:Epistemology\") * [t](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Epistemology \"Template talk:Epistemology\") * [e](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Epistemology \"Special:EditPage/Template:Epistemology\") [Epistemology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistemology \"Epistemology\") | | --- | | [Epistemologists](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_epistemologists \"List of epistemologists\") | * [William Alston](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Alston \"William Alston\") * [Aquinas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas \"Thomas Aquinas\") * [Aristotle](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotle \"Aristotle\") * [Robert Audi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Audi \"Robert Audi\") * [Augustine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo \"Augustine of Hippo\") * [A. J. Ayer](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A._J._Ayer \"A. J. Ayer\") * [George Berkeley](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Berkeley \"George Berkeley\") * [Berlin Circle](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berlin_Circle \"Berlin Circle\") * [Laurence BonJour](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laurence_BonJour \"Laurence BonJour\") * [Gilles Deleuze](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gilles_Deleuze \"Gilles Deleuze\") * [Keith DeRose](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keith_DeRose \"Keith DeRose\") * [Ren\u00e9 Descartes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes \"Ren\u00e9 Descartes\") * [John Dewey](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Dewey \"John Dewey\") * [Fred Dretske](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fred_Dretske \"Fred Dretske\") * [Edmund Gettier](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmund_Gettier \"Edmund Gettier\") * [Alvin Goldman](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alvin_Goldman \"Alvin Goldman\") * [Nelson Goodman](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nelson_Goodman \"Nelson Goodman\") * [Paul Grice](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Grice \"Paul Grice\") * [Anil Gupta](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anil_Gupta_(philosopher) \"Anil Gupta (philosopher)\") * [Susan Haack](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Susan_Haack \"Susan Haack\") * [David Hume](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Hume \"David Hume\") * [Immanuel Kant](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant \"Immanuel Kant\") * [S\u00f8ren Kierkegaard](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard \"S\u00f8ren Kierkegaard\") * [Peter Klein](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_D._Klein \"Peter D. Klein\") * [Saul Kripke](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saul_Kripke \"Saul Kripke\") * [Hilary Kornblith](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hilary_Kornblith \"Hilary Kornblith\") * [David Lewis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Lewis_(philosopher) \"David Lewis (philosopher)\") * [John Locke](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Locke \"John Locke\") * [G. E. Moore](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G._E._Moore \"G. E. Moore\") * [John McDowell](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_McDowell \"John McDowell\") * [Robert Nozick](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Nozick \"Robert Nozick\") * [Alvin Plantinga](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alvin_Plantinga \"Alvin Plantinga\") * [Plato](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plato \"Plato\") * [Duncan Pritchard](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duncan_Pritchard \"Duncan Pritchard\") * [James Pryor](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Pryor \"James Pryor\") * [Hilary Putnam](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hilary_Putnam \"Hilary Putnam\") * [W. V. O. Quine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine \"Willard Van Orman Quine\") * [Thomas Reid](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Reid \"Thomas Reid\") * [Bertrand Russell](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertrand_Russell \"Bertrand Russell\") * [Gilbert Ryle](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gilbert_Ryle \"Gilbert Ryle\") * [Wilfrid Sellars](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilfrid_Sellars \"Wilfrid Sellars\") * [Susanna Siegel](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Susanna_Siegel \"Susanna Siegel\") * [Ernest Sosa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Sosa \"Ernest Sosa\") * [P. F. Strawson](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P._F._Strawson \"P. F. Strawson\") * [Baruch Spinoza](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza \"Baruch Spinoza\") * [Timothy Williamson](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timothy_Williamson \"Timothy Williamson\") * [Ludwig Wittgenstein](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein \"Ludwig Wittgenstein\") * [Nicholas Wolterstorff](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicholas_Wolterstorff \"Nicholas Wolterstorff\") * [Vienna Circle](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vienna_Circle \"Vienna Circle\") * _[more...](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List\\_of\\_epistemologists \"List of epistemologists\")_ | | [Theories](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Epistemological_theories \"Category:Epistemological theories\") | * [Coherentism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coherentism \"Coherentism\") * [Constructivism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constructivist_epistemology \"Constructivist epistemology\") * [Contextualism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contextualism \"Contextualism\") * [Empiricism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empiricism \"Empiricism\") * [Evolutionary epistemology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionary_epistemology \"Evolutionary epistemology\") * [Fallibilism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fallibilism \"Fallibilism\") * [Feminist epistemology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feminist_epistemology \"Feminist epistemology\") * [Fideism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fideism \"Fideism\") * [Foundationalism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foundationalism \"Foundationalism\") * [Hauntology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hauntology \"Hauntology\") * [Holism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semantic_holism \"Semantic holism\") * [Infinitism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infinitism \"Infinitism\") * [Innatism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Innatism \"Innatism\") * [Na\u00efve realism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Na%C3%AFve_realism \"Na\u00efve realism\") * [Naturalized epistemology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naturalized_epistemology \"Naturalized epistemology\") * [Phenomenalism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phenomenalism \"Phenomenalism\") * [Positivism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positivism \"Positivism\") * [Rationalism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rationalism \"Rationalism\") * [Reductionism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reductionism \"Reductionism\") * [Reliabilism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reliabilism \"Reliabilism\") * [Representational realism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_and_indirect_realism \"Direct and indirect realism\") * [Skepticism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophical_skepticism \"Philosophical skepticism\") * [Transcendental idealism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transcendental_idealism \"Transcendental idealism\") | | [Concepts](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Concepts_in_epistemology \"Category:Concepts in epistemology\") | * [_A priori_ knowledge](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_priori_and_a_posteriori \"A priori and a posteriori\") * [_A posteriori_ knowledge](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_priori_and_a_posteriori \"A priori and a posteriori\") * [Analysis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophical_analysis \"Philosophical analysis\") * [Analytic\u2013synthetic distinction](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analytic%E2%80%93synthetic_distinction \"Analytic\u2013synthetic distinction\") * [Belief](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belief \"Belief\") * [Certainty](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Certainty \"Certainty\") * [Common sense](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_sense \"Common sense\") * [Descriptive knowledge](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Descriptive_knowledge \"Descriptive knowledge\") * [Exploratory thought](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exploratory_thought \"Exploratory thought\") * [Epistemic injustice](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistemic_injustice \"Epistemic injustice\") * [Epistemic virtue](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistemic_virtue \"Epistemic virtue\") * [Gettier problem](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gettier_problem \"Gettier problem\") * [Induction](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inductive_reasoning \"Inductive reasoning\") * [Internalism and externalism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internalism_and_externalism \"Internalism and externalism\") * [Justification](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Justification_(epistemology) \"Justification (epistemology)\") * [Knowledge](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge \"Knowledge\") * [Meta](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meta_(prefix) \"Meta (prefix)\") * [Objectivity](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objectivity_(philosophy) \"Objectivity (philosophy)\") * [Privileged access](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Privileged_access \"Privileged access\") * [Problem of induction](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Problem_of_induction \"Problem of induction\") * [Problem of other minds](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Problem_of_other_minds \"Problem of other minds\") * [Perception](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perception \"Perception\") * [Procedural knowledge](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Procedural_knowledge \"Procedural knowledge\") * [Proposition](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proposition \"Proposition\") * [Regress argument](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regress_argument \"Regress argument\") * [Simplicity](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simplicity \"Simplicity\") * [Truth](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth) * [Uncertainty](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uncertainty \"Uncertainty\") * [Worldview](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Worldview \"Worldview\") | | Related articles | * [Faith and rationality](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faith_and_rationality \"Faith and rationality\") * [Formal epistemology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formal_epistemology \"Formal epistemology\") * [Metaepistemology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metaepistemology \"Metaepistemology\") * [Philosophy of perception](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_perception \"Philosophy of perception\") * [Philosophy of science](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_science \"Philosophy of science\") * [Social epistemology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_epistemology \"Social epistemology\") * [Virtue epistemology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtue_epistemology \"Virtue epistemology\") * [Wikipedia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistemology_of_Wikipedia \"Epistemology of Wikipedia\") | | * ![Image 32](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/20px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png)[Category](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Epistemology \"Category:Epistemology\") * ![Image 33](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/20px-Global_thinking.svg.png)[Outline](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_epistemology \"Outline of epistemology\") * [![Image 34](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/20px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg \"Portal\")[Portal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Philosophy \"Portal:Philosophy\") * ![Image 35](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/20px-People_icon.svg.png)[WikiProject](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Philosophy/Epistemology \"Wikipedia:WikiProject Philosophy/Epistemology\") * [Stubs](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Philosophy_stubs \"Category:Philosophy stubs\") * [Discussion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia_talk:WikiProject_Philosophy \"Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Philosophy\") | | * [v](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Logic \"Template:Logic\") * [t](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Logic \"Template talk:Logic\") * [e](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Logic \"Special:EditPage/Template:Logic\") [Logic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logic \"Logic\") | | --- | | * [History](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_logic \"History of logic\") | | Major fields | * [Computer science](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logic_in_computer_science \"Logic in computer science\") * [Formal semantics (natural language)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formal_semantics_(natural_language) \"Formal semantics (natural language)\") * [Inference](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inference \"Inference\") * [Philosophy of logic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_logic \"Philosophy of logic\") * [Proof](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formal_proof \"Formal proof\") * [Semantics of logic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semantics_of_logic \"Semantics of logic\") * [Syntax](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syntax_(logic) \"Syntax (logic)\") | Logics | * [Classical](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_logic \"Classical logic\") * [Informal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informal_logic \"Informal logic\") * [Critical thinking](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critical_thinking \"Critical thinking\") * [Reason](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reason \"Reason\") * [Mathematical](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_logic \"Mathematical logic\") * [Non-classical](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-classical_logic \"Non-classical logic\") * [Philosophical](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophical_logic \"Philosophical logic\") | | --- | | Theories | * [Argumentation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argumentation_theory \"Argumentation theory\") * [Metalogic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metalogic \"Metalogic\") * [Metamathematics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metamathematics \"Metamathematics\") * [Set](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Set_theory \"Set theory\") | | | Foundations | * [Abduction](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abductive_reasoning \"Abductive reasoning\") * [Analytic and synthetic propositions](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analytic%E2%80%93synthetic_distinction \"Analytic\u2013synthetic distinction\") * [Antecedent](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antecedent_(logic) \"Antecedent (logic)\") * [Consequent](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consequent \"Consequent\") * [Contradiction](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contradiction \"Contradiction\") * [Paradox](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paradox \"Paradox\") * [Antinomy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antinomy \"Antinomy\") * [Deduction](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deductive_reasoning \"Deductive reasoning\") * [Deductive closure](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deductive_closure \"Deductive closure\") * [Definition](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Definition \"Definition\") * [Description](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Description \"Description\") * [Dichotomy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dichotomy \"Dichotomy\") * [Entailment](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logical_consequence \"Logical consequence\") * [Linguistic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistic_entailment \"Linguistic entailment\") * [Form](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logical_form \"Logical form\") * [Induction](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inductive_reasoning \"Inductive reasoning\") * [Logical truth](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logical_truth \"Logical truth\") * [Name](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Name \"Name\") * [Necessity and sufficiency](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Necessity_and_sufficiency \"Necessity and sufficiency\") * [Premise](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Premise \"Premise\") * [Probability](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Probability \"Probability\") * [Proposition](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proposition \"Proposition\") * [Reference](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reference \"Reference\") * [Statement](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statement_(logic) \"Statement (logic)\") * [Substitution](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Substitution_(logic) \"Substitution (logic)\") * [Truth](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth) * [Validity](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Validity_(logic) \"Validity (logic)\") | | Lists | | [Topics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_logic_articles \"Index of logic articles\") | * [Mathematical logic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mathematical_logic_topics \"List of mathematical logic topics\") * [Boolean algebra](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Boolean_algebra_topics \"List of Boolean algebra topics\") * [Set theory](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_set_theory_topics \"List of set theory topics\") | | --- | | Other | * [Logicians](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_logicians \"List of logicians\") * [Rules of inference](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_rules_of_inference \"List of rules of inference\") * [Paradoxes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_paradoxes \"List of paradoxes\") * [Fallacies](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fallacies \"List of fallacies\") * [Logic symbols](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_logic_symbols \"List of logic symbols\") | | | * ![Image 36](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/20px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png)[Category](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Logic \"Category:Logic\") * ![Image 37](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/20px-Global_thinking.svg.png)[Outline](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_logic \"Outline of logic\") * [![Image 38](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/20px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg \"Portal\")[Portal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Philosophy \"Portal:Philosophy\") * ![Image 39](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/20px-People_icon.svg.png)[WikiProject](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Logic \"Wikipedia:WikiProject Logic\") * [changes](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Recentchangeslinked&target=Template:Logic&hidebots=0) | | * [v](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Positivism \"Template:Positivism\") * [t](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Positivism \"Template talk:Positivism\") * [e](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Positivism \"Special:EditPage/Template:Positivism\") [Positivism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positivism \"Positivism\") | | --- | | | Perspectives | * [Antihumanism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antihumanism \"Antihumanism\") * [Empiricism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empiricism \"Empiricism\") * [Rationalism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rationalism \"Rationalism\") * [Scientism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientism \"Scientism\") | | --- | | Declinations | * [Legal positivism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legal_positivism \"Legal positivism\") * [Logical positivism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logical_positivism \"Logical positivism\") * [Positivist school](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positivist_school_(criminology) \"Positivist school (criminology)\") * [Postpositivism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postpositivism \"Postpositivism\") * [Sociological positivism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociological_positivism \"Sociological positivism\") * [Machian positivism (empirio-criticism)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernst_Mach \"Ernst Mach\") * [Rankean historical positivism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rankean_historical_positivism \"Rankean historical positivism\") * [Polish positivism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positivism_in_Poland \"Positivism in Poland\") * [Russian Machism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Machism \"Russian Machism\") | | Principal concepts | * [Consilience](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consilience \"Consilience\") * [Demarcation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demarcation_problem \"Demarcation problem\") * [Evidence](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence \"Evidence\") * [Induction](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inductive_reasoning \"Inductive reasoning\") * [Justification](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Justification_(epistemology) \"Justification (epistemology)\") * [Pseudoscience](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudoscience \"Pseudoscience\") * [Critique of metaphysics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vienna_Circle#Critique_of_metaphysics \"Vienna Circle\") * [Unity of science](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unity_of_science \"Unity of science\") * [Verificationism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verificationism \"Verificationism\") | | Antitheses | * [Antipositivism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antipositivism \"Antipositivism\") * [Confirmation holism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confirmation_holism \"Confirmation holism\") * [Critical theory](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critical_theory \"Critical theory\") * [Falsifiability](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falsifiability \"Falsifiability\") * _[Geisteswissenschaft](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geisteswissenschaft \"Geisteswissenschaft\")_ * [Hermeneutics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermeneutics \"Hermeneutics\") * [Historicism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historicism \"Historicism\") * [Historism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historism \"Historism\") * [Human science](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_science \"Human science\") * [Humanities](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanities \"Humanities\") * [Metaphysics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metaphysics \"Metaphysics\") * [Methodological dualism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methodological_dualism \"Methodological dualism\") * [Problem of induction](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Problem_of_induction \"Problem of induction\") * [Reflectivism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reflectivism \"Reflectivism\") | | Related [paradigm shifts](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paradigm_shift \"Paradigm shift\") in the [history of science](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science \"History of science\") | * [Non-Euclidean geometry](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-Euclidean_geometry \"Non-Euclidean geometry\") (1830s) * [Uncertainty principle](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uncertainty_principle \"Uncertainty principle\") (1927) | | Related topics | * [Behavioralism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behavioralism \"Behavioralism\") * [Post-behavioralism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post-behavioralism \"Post-behavioralism\") * [Critical rationalism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critical_rationalism \"Critical rationalism\") * [Criticism of science](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criticism_of_science \"Criticism of science\") * [Epistemology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistemology \"Epistemology\") * [anarchism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistemological_anarchism \"Epistemological anarchism\") * [idealism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistemological_idealism \"Epistemological idealism\") * [nihilism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistemological_nihilism \"Epistemological nihilism\") * [pluralism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistemological_pluralism \"Epistemological pluralism\") * [realism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistemological_realism \"Epistemological realism\") * [Holism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holism \"Holism\") * [Instrumentalism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instrumentalism \"Instrumentalism\") * [Modernism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modernism \"Modernism\") * [Naturalism in literature](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naturalism_(literature) \"Naturalism (literature)\") * [Nomothetic\u2013idiographic distinction](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nomothetic_and_idiographic \"Nomothetic and idiographic\") * [Objectivity in science](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objectivity_(science) \"Objectivity (science)\") * [Operationalism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operationalization \"Operationalization\") * [Phenomenalism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phenomenalism \"Phenomenalism\") * [Philosophy of science](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_science \"Philosophy of science\") * [Deductive-nomological model](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deductive-nomological_model \"Deductive-nomological model\") * [Ramsey sentence](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramsey_sentence \"Ramsey sentence\") * [Sense-data theory](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sense_data \"Sense data\") * [Qualitative research](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qualitative_research \"Qualitative research\") * [Relationship between religion and science](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relationship_between_religion_and_science \"Relationship between religion and science\") * [Sociology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociology \"Sociology\") * [Social science](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_science \"Social science\") * [Philosophy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_social_science \"Philosophy of social science\") * [Structural functionalism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structural_functionalism \"Structural functionalism\") * [Structuralism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structuralism \"Structuralism\") * [Structuration theory](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structuration_theory \"Structuration theory\") | | | | Positivist-related debate | | --- | | | Method | * _[Methodenstreit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methodenstreit \"Methodenstreit\")_ (1890s) * _[Werturteilsstreit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Werturteilsstreit \"Werturteilsstreit\")_ (1909\u20131959) * _[Positivismusstreit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positivism\\_dispute \"Positivism dispute\")_ (1960s) * [Fourth Great Debate in international relations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Debates_(international_relations)#Fourth_Great_Debate \"Great Debates (international relations)\") (1980s) * [Science wars](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_wars \"Science wars\") (1990s) | | --- | | Contributions | * _[The Course in Positive Philosophy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The\\_Course\\_in\\_Positive\\_Philosophy \"The Course in Positive Philosophy\")_ (1830) * _[A General View of Positivism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A\\_General\\_View\\_of\\_Positivism \"A General View of Positivism\")_ (1848) * _[Critical History of Philosophy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critical\\_History\\_of\\_Philosophy \"Critical History of Philosophy\")_ (1869) * _[Idealism and Positivism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idealism\\_and\\_Positivism \"Idealism and Positivism\")_ (1879\u20131884) * _[The Analysis of Sensations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The\\_Analysis\\_of\\_Sensations \"The Analysis of Sensations\")_ (1886) * _[The Logic of Modern Physics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The\\_Logic\\_of\\_Modern\\_Physics \"The Logic of Modern Physics\")_ (1927) * _[Language, Truth, and Logic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language,\\_Truth,\\_and\\_Logic \"Language, Truth, and Logic\")_ (1936) * _[The Two Cultures](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The\\_Two\\_Cultures \"The Two Cultures\")_ (1959) * _[The Universe in a Nutshell](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The\\_Universe\\_in\\_a\\_Nutshell \"The Universe in a Nutshell\")_ (2001) | | Proponents | * [Richard Avenarius](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Avenarius \"Richard Avenarius\") * [A. J. Ayer](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A._J._Ayer \"A. J. Ayer\") * [Alexander Bogdanov](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Bogdanov \"Alexander Bogdanov\") * [Percy Williams Bridgman](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Percy_Williams_Bridgman \"Percy Williams Bridgman\") * [Auguste Comte](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auguste_Comte \"Auguste Comte\") * [Eugen D\u00fchring](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eugen_D%C3%BChring \"Eugen D\u00fchring\") * [\u00c9mile Durkheim](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim \"\u00c9mile Durkheim\") * [Stephen Hawking](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Hawking \"Stephen Hawking\") * [Ernst Laas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernst_Laas \"Ernst Laas\") * [Ernst Mach](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernst_Mach \"Ernst Mach\") * [C. P. Snow](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C._P._Snow \"C. P. Snow\") * [Berlin Circle](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berlin_Circle \"Berlin Circle\") * [Vienna Circle](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vienna_Circle \"Vienna Circle\") | | Criticism | * _[Materialism and Empirio-criticism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materialism\\_and\\_Empirio-criticism \"Materialism and Empirio-criticism\")_ (1909) * _[History and Class Consciousness](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History\\_and\\_Class\\_Consciousness \"History and Class Consciousness\")_ (1923) * _[The Logic of Scientific Discovery](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The\\_Logic\\_of\\_Scientific\\_Discovery \"The Logic of Scientific Discovery\")_ (1934) * _[The Poverty of Historicism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The\\_Poverty\\_of\\_Historicism \"The Poverty of Historicism\")_ (1936) * _[World Hypotheses](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World\\_Hypotheses \"World Hypotheses\")_ (1942) * _[Two Dogmas of Empiricism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two\\_Dogmas\\_of\\_Empiricism \"Two Dogmas of Empiricism\")_ (1951) * _[Truth and Method](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth\\_and\\_Method \"Truth and Method\")_ (1960) * _[The Structure of Scientific Revolutions](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The\\_Structure\\_of\\_Scientific\\_Revolutions \"The Structure of Scientific Revolutions\")_ (1962) * _[Conjectures and Refutations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conjectures\\_and\\_Refutations \"Conjectures and Refutations\")_ (1963) * _[One-Dimensional Man](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/One-Dimensional\\_Man \"One-Dimensional Man\")_ (1964) * _[Knowledge and Human Interests](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge\\_and\\_Human\\_Interests \"Knowledge and Human Interests\")_ (1968) * _[The Poverty of Theory](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The\\_Poverty\\_of\\_Theory \"The Poverty of Theory\")_ (1978) * _[The Scientific Image](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The\\_Scientific\\_Image \"The Scientific Image\")_ (1980) * _[The Rhetoric of Economics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The\\_Rhetoric\\_of\\_Economics \"The Rhetoric of Economics\")_ (1986) | | Critics | * [Theodor W. Adorno](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodor_W._Adorno \"Theodor W. Adorno\") * [Gaston Bachelard](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaston_Bachelard \"Gaston Bachelard\") * [Mario Bunge](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mario_Bunge \"Mario Bunge\") * [Wilhelm Dilthey](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilhelm_Dilthey \"Wilhelm Dilthey\") * [Paul Feyerabend](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Feyerabend \"Paul Feyerabend\") * [Hans-Georg Gadamer](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans-Georg_Gadamer \"Hans-Georg Gadamer\") * [J\u00fcrgen Habermas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas \"J\u00fcrgen Habermas\") * [Thomas Kuhn](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Kuhn \"Thomas Kuhn\") * [Vladimir Lenin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin \"Vladimir Lenin\") * [Gy\u00f6rgy Luk\u00e1cs](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gy%C3%B6rgy_Luk%C3%A1cs \"Gy\u00f6rgy Luk\u00e1cs\") * [Herbert Marcuse](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herbert_Marcuse \"Herbert Marcuse\") * [Deirdre McCloskey](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deirdre_McCloskey \"Deirdre McCloskey\") * [Stephen Pepper](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Pepper \"Stephen Pepper\") * [Karl Popper](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Popper \"Karl Popper\") * [Willard Van Orman Quine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine \"Willard Van Orman Quine\") * [E. P. Thompson](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E._P._Thompson \"E. P. Thompson\") * [Bas van Fraassen](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bas_van_Fraassen \"Bas van Fraassen\") * [Max Weber](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Weber \"Max Weber\") | | Concepts in contention | * [Knowledge](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge \"Knowledge\") * [Objectivity](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objectivity_(philosophy) \"Objectivity (philosophy)\") * _[Phronesis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phronesis \"Phronesis\")_ * [Truth](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth) * _[Verstehen](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verstehen \"Verstehen\")_ | | | | [Category](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Positivism \"Category:Positivism\") | |\n\n| [Authority control databases](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Authority_control \"Help:Authority control\")[![Image 40: Edit this at Wikidata](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png)](https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7949#identifiers \"Edit this at Wikidata\") |\n| --- |\n| International | * [GND](https://d-nb.info/gnd/4064314-1) |\n| National | * [United States](https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85138279) * [France](https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb119378816) * [BnF data](https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb119378816) * [Japan](https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00755604) * [Czech Republic](https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph124557&CON_LNG=ENG) * [Spain](https://datos.bne.es/resource/XX528188) * [Israel](https://www.nli.org.il/en/authorities/987007553520705171) |\n| Other | * [Encyclopedia of Modern Ukraine](http://esu.com.ua/search_articles.php?id=12757) * [Yale LUX](https://lux.collections.yale.edu/view/concept/dfec5e4b-6626-42fe-a62a-1948d240a630) |\n\nRetrieved from \"[https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Truth&oldid=1350372150](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Truth&oldid=1350372150)\"\n\n[Categories](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Category \"Help:Category\"): 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